Water Law: riverbeds: the Montana Supreme Court’s
ruling that Montana owns and may charge for use of the riverbeds at issue was
based on an infirm legal understanding of this Court’s rules of navigability
for title under the equal-footing doctrine; the rule that the States, in their
capacity as sovereigns, hold “title in the soil of rivers really navigable,” Shively
v. Bowlby, 152 U. S. 1, 31, has federal constitutional significance
under the equal footing doctrine. Pursuant to that doctrine, upon its date of
statehood, a State gains title within its borders to the beds of waters then
navigable. It may allocate and govern those lands according to state law
subject only to the United States’ power “to control such waters for purposes
of navigation in interstate and foreign commerce.” United States v. Oregon,
295 U. S. 1, 14. The United States retains title vested in it before
statehood to land beneath waters not then navigable. To be navigable for
purposes of title under the equal-footing doctrine, rivers must be “navigable
in fact,” meaning “they are used, or are susceptible of being used, . . . as
highways for commerce, over which trade and travel are or may be conducted in
the customary modes of trade and travel on water.” The Daniel Ball, 10
Wall. 557, 563. This formulation has been used to determine questions of waterbed
title under the equal-footing doctrine. See United States v. Utah,
283 U. S. 64, 76; because commerce could not have occurred on segments
nonnavigable at the time of statehood, there is no reason to deem those
segments owned by the State under the equal-footing doctrine; the State Supreme
Court’s view that the segment-by-segment approach does not apply to short
interruptions of navigability is not supported by this Court’s Utah decision.
Even if the law might find some nonnavigable segments so minimal that they
merit treatment as part of a longer, navigable reach, it is doubtful that the
segments in this case would meet that standard. Applying its “short interruptions”
approach, the State Supreme Court found the Great Falls reach navigable because
it could be managed by way of land route portage, as done by Lewis and Clark.
But a portage of even one day would demonstrate the need to bypass a
nonnavigable river segment. Thus, the State Supreme Court was wrong to
conclude, with respect to the Great Falls reach and other disputed stretches,
that portages were insufficient to defeat a navigability finding. In most
cases, they are, because they require transportation over land rather than over
the water; the Montana Supreme Court further erred as a matter of law in
relying on evidence of present-day, primarily recreational use of the Madison
River. Navigability must be assessed as of the time of statehood, and it
concerns a river’s usefulness for “ ‘trade and travel.’ ” Utah, 283 U.
S., at 75–76. River segments are navigable if they“ ‘were’ ” used and if they “
‘were susceptible of being used’ ” as
highways of commerce at the time of statehood. Id., at 76. Evidence of
recreational use and poststatehood evidence may bear on susceptibility of
commercial use at the time of statehood. See id., at 82–83. In order for
present-day use to have a bearing on navigability at statehood, (1) the
watercraft must be meaningfully similar to those in customary use for trade and
travel at the time of statehood, and (2) the river’s poststatehood condition
may not be materially different from its physical condition at statehood. The
State Supreme Court offered no indication that it made these necessary findings
(U.S.S.Ct., 22.02.12, PPL Montana, LLC v. Montana, J. Kennedy, unanimous).
Wednesday, February 22, 2012
PPL Montana, LLC v. Montana
Messerschmidt v. Millender
Immunity of police officers: the officers are entitled
to qualified immunity; qualified immunity “protects government officials ‘from
liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly
established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person
would have known.’ ” Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U. S. 223, 231.
Where the alleged Fourth Amendment violation involves a search or seizure
pursuant to a warrant, the fact that a neutral magistrate has issued a warrant
is the clearest indication that the officers acted in an objectively reasonable
manner, or in “objective good faith.” United States v. Leon, 468
U. S. 897, 922–923. Nonetheless, that fact does not end the inquiry into
objective reasonableness. The Court has recognized an exception allowing suit
when “it is obvious that no reasonably competent officer would have concluded
that a warrant should issue.” Malley v. Briggs, 475 U. S. 335,
341. The “shield of immunity” otherwise conferred by the warrant, id.,
at 345, will be lost, for example, where the warrant was “based on an affidavit
so lacking in indicia of probable cause as to render official belief in its
existence entirely unreasonable.” Leon, 468 U. S., at 923. The threshold
for establishing this exception is high. “In the ordinary case, an officer
cannot be expected to question the magistrate’s probable-cause determination”
because “it is the magistrate’s responsibility to determine whether the
officer’s allegations establish probable cause and, if so, to issue a warrant
comporting in form with the requirements of the Fourth Amendment.” Leon,
supra, at 921; California law allows a magistrate to issue a search warrant
for items “in the possession of any person with the intent to use them as a
means of committing a public offense,” Cal. Penal Code Ann. §1524(a)(3), and
the warrant application submitted by the officers specifically referenced this
provision as a basis for the search (U.S.S.Ct., 22.02.12, Messerschmidt v.
Millender, C.J. Roberts).
Immunité des
officiers de police : de manière générale, l’immunité protège les employés
publics d’une responsabilité civile aussi longtemps que leur conduite ne porte
pas atteinte à des droits clairement établis par une loi fédérale au sens
formel ou par la Constitution, droits qu’une personne raisonnable est censée
connaître. Lorsqu’une violation alléguée du Quatrième Amendement implique une
fouille ou une saisie conformément à un warrant, le fait qu’un magistrat neutre
ait délivré un warrant constitue l’indication la plus claire que l’officier de
police a agi d’une manière objectivement raisonnable, ou de bonne foi
objective. Cependant, cette détermination est insuffisante à satisfaire en
elle-même le critère de la manière objectivement raisonnable. La Cour a reconnu
une exception en admettant une action lorsqu’il est évident qu’aucun officier
de police raisonnablement compétent n’aurait pu concevoir qu’un warrant pouvait
être émis. L’immunité conférée par un warrant sera par exemple perdue si le
warrant est basé sur un affidavit tellement dépourvu de cause probable que
croire à la validité de dit warrant est complètement déraisonnable. Cette
exception n’est admise qu’avec beaucoup de retenue.
Tuesday, February 21, 2012
Kawashima v. Holder
Tax: deportation: an Immigration Judge ordered the
removal of resident aliens Akio and Fusako Kawashima, determining that Mr.
Kawashima’s conviction for willfully making and subscribing a false tax return,
26 U. S. C. §7206(1), and Mrs. Kawashima’s conviction for aiding and assisting
in the preparation of a false tax return, §7206(2), qualified as crimes
involving fraud or deceit under 8 U. S. C. §1101(a)(43)(M)(i) (Clause (i)) and
thus were aggravated felonies for which they could be deported under
§1227(a)(2)(A)(iii). The Board of Immigration Appeals affirmed. Holding that
convictions under 26 U. S. C. §§7206(1) and (2) in which the Government’s
revenue loss exceeds $10,000 constitute aggravated felonies under Clause (i),
the Ninth Circuit affirmed, but remanded for the Board to determine whether
Mrs. Kawashima’s conviction had caused a Government loss in excess of $10,000.
Held: Convictions under 26 U. S. C.
§§7206(1) and (2) in which the Government’s revenue loss exceeds $10,000
qualify as aggravated felonies pursuant to Clause (i) (U.S.S.Ct., 21.02.12,
Kawashima v. Holder, J. Thomas).
Etablissement
d’une fausse déclaration fiscale par un contribuable résident non-citoyen, aidé
en cela par son épouse : renvoi du territoire des Etats-Unis : en
l’espèce, un Juge de l’immigration ordonna le renvoi d’un étranger, résidant
aux U.S., et de son épouse, considérant que la condamnation du mari pour avoir
établi intentionnellement une fausse déclaration fiscale, et considérant que la
condamnation de l’épouse pour avoir aidé à la préparation de dite déclaration,
impliquait la qualification de ces condamnations comme crimes comportant un
élément de fraude ou de tromperie au sens de 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(43)(M)(i) (disposition
connue sous la dénomination de clause i). Ces infractions constituaient ainsi
des crimes aggravés pour la commission desquels les deux condamnés pouvaient
être renvoyés des Etats-Unis au sens de la §1227 (a)(2)(A)(iii). Le Board of
Immigration Appeals confirma la décision du Juge de l’immigration. Saisie de
cette affaire, la Cour Suprême fédérale juge que les condamnations au sens de
26 U.S.C. §§7206(1) et (2) portant sur des infractions dans le cadre desquelles
la perte de revenu du Gouvernement excède 10'000 dollars s’analysent en des
crimes aggravés selon la clause (i). Par conséquent, les deux condamnés peuvent
être renvoyés du territoire des Etats-Unis.
Howes v. Fields
Miranda warnings: this Court’s precedents do not
clearly establish the categorical rule on which the Sixth Circuit relied. The
Court has repeatedly declined to adopt any such rule. See, e.g., Illinois
v. Perkins, 496 U. S. 292. The Sixth Circuit misread Mathis, which
simply held, as relevant here, that a prisoner who otherwise meets the
requirements for Miranda custody is not taken outside the scope of Miranda
because he was incarcerated for an unconnected offense. It did not hold
that imprisonment alone constitutes Miranda custody. Nor does the
statement in Maryland v. Shatzer, 559 U. S. ___, ___, that “no
one questions that inmate Shatzer was in custody for Miranda purposes”
support a per se rule. It means only that the issue of custody was not
contested in that case. Finally, contrary to respondent’s suggestion, Miranda
itself did not hold that the inherently compelling pressures of custodial
interrogation are always present when a prisoner is taken aside and questioned
about events outside the prison walls; the Sixth Circuit’s categorical
rule—that imprisonment, questioning in private, and questioning about events
in the outside world create a custodial situation for Miranda purposes—is
simply wrong; the initial step in determining whether a person is in Miranda
custody is to ascertain, given “all of the circumstances surrounding the
interrogation,” how a suspect would have gauged his freedom of movement. Stansbury
v. California, 511 U. S. 318, 322, 325. However, not all
restraints on freedom of movement amount to Miranda custody. See, e.g.,
Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U. S. 420, 423. Shatzer, distinguishing
between restraints on freedom of movement and Miranda custody, held
that a break in Miranda custody between a suspect’s invocation of the
right to counsel and the initiation of subsequent questioning may occur while
a suspect is serving an uninterrupted term of imprisonment. If a break in
custody can occur, it must follow that imprisonment alone is not enough to
create a custodial situation within the meaning of Miranda. At least
three strong grounds support this conclusion: questioning a person who is
already in prison does not generally involve the shock that very often accompanies
arrest; a prisoner is unlikely to be lured into speaking by a longing for
prompt release; and a prisoner knows that his questioners probably lack
authority to affect the duration of his sentence. Thus, service of a prison
term, without more, is not enough to constitute Miranda custody; the
other two elements in the Sixth Circuit’s rule are likewise insufficient.
Taking a prisoner aside for questioning may necessitate some additional
limitations on the prisoner’s freedom of movement, but it does not necessarily
convert a noncustodial situation into Miranda custody. Isolation may
contribute to a coercive atmosphere when a nonprisoner is questioned, but
questioning a prisoner in private does not generally remove him from a
supportive atmosphere and may be in his best interest. Neither does questioning
a prisoner about criminal activity outside the prison have a significantly
greater potential for coercion than questioning under otherwise identical circumstances
about criminal activity within the prison walls. The coercive pressure that Miranda
guards against is neither mitigated nor magnified by the location of the
conduct about which questions are asked (U.S.S.Ct., 21.02.12, Howes v. Fields,
J. Alito).
Marmet Health Care Center, Inc. v. Brown
Supreme Court of the U.S.: when this Court has
fulfilled its duty to interpret federal law, a state court may not contradict
or fail to implement the rule so established. See U. S. Const., Art. VI, cl. 2
(U.S.S.Ct., 21.02.12, Marmet Health Care Center, Inc. v. Brown, Per Curiam).
Lorsque la
Cour Suprême fédérale a rempli son devoir consistant à interpréter le droit
fédéral, une cour d’un état ne peut pas contredire les considérants de la Cour,
ni ne peut manquer d’appliquer dits considérants.
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