Showing posts with label Class actions. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Class actions. Show all posts

Monday, May 21, 2018

Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis, Docket No. 16-285


Labor law: Arbitration: Saving clause: Class actions:

Should employees and employers be allowed to agree that any disputes between them will be resolved through one-on-one arbitration? Or should employees always be permitted to bring their claims in class or collective ac­tions, no matter what they agreed with their employers?
As a matter of policy these questions are surely debatable. But as a matter of law the answer is clear. In the Federal Arbitration Act, Congress has instructed federal courts to enforce arbitration agreements according to their terms—including terms providing for individualized pro­ceedings. Nor can we agree with the employees’ sugges­tion that the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) offers a conflicting command. It is this Court’s duty to interpret Congress’s statutes as a harmonious whole rather than at war with one another. And abiding that duty here leads to an unmistakable conclusion. The NLRA secures to em­ployees rights to organize unions and bargain collectively, but it says nothing about how judges and arbitrators must try legal disputes that leave the workplace and enter the courtroom or arbitral forum. This Court has never read a right to class actions into the NLRA—and for three quar­ters of a century neither did the National Labor Relations Board. Far from conflicting, the Arbitration Act and the NLRA have long enjoyed separate spheres of influence and neither permits this Court to declare the parties’ agree­ments unlawful.
(…) Still, the employees suggest the Arbitration Act’s saving clause creates an exception for cases like theirs. By its terms, the saving clause allows courts to refuse to enforce arbitration agreements “upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract.” §2. That provision applies here, the employees tell us, because the NLRA renders their particular class and collective action waivers illegal. In their view, illegality under the NLRA is a “ground” that “exists at law . . . for the revocation” of their arbitration agreements, at least to the extent those agreements prohibit class or collective action proceedings (…) The saving clause still can’t save their cause.
It can’t because the saving clause recognizes only de­fenses that apply to “any” contract. In this way the clause establishes a sort of “equal-treatment” rule for arbitration contracts. Kindred Nursing Centers L. P. v. Clark, 581 U. S. ___, ___ (2017) (slip op., at 4). The clause “permits agreements to arbitrate to be invalidated by ‘generally applicable contract defenses, such as fraud, duress, or unconscionability.’” Concepcion, 563 U. S., at 339. At the same time, the clause offers no refuge for “defenses that apply only to arbitration or that derive their meaning from the fact that an agreement to arbitrate is at issue.” Ibid. Under our precedent, this means the saving clause does not save defenses that target arbitration either by name or by more subtle methods, such as by “interfering with fundamental attributes of arbitration.” Id., at 344; see Kindred Nursing, supra, at ___ (slip op., at 5). This is where the employees’ argument stumbles. They don’t suggest that their arbitration agreements were extracted, say, by an act of fraud or duress or in some other unconscionable way that would render any contract unenforceable. Instead, they object to their agreements precisely because they require individualized arbitration proceedings instead of class or collective ones. And by attacking (only) the individualized nature of the arbitra­tion proceedings, the employees’ argument seeks to inter­fere with one of arbitration’s fundamental attributes.
(…) The Court recog­nized that parties remain free to alter arbitration proce­dures to suit their tastes, and in recent years some parties have sometimes chosen to arbitrate on a classwide basis. Id., at 351. But Concepcion’s essential insight remains: courts may not allow a contract defense to reshape tradi­tional individualized arbitration by mandating classwide arbitration procedures without the parties’ consent.

(U.S.S.C., May 21, 2018, Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis, Docket No. 16-285, J. Gorsuch)

Si un contrat de travail prévoit une clause d’arbitrage, cette clause doit être respectée en cas de litige, sauf à pouvoir alléguer utilement sa nullité en invoquant les motifs de nullité contractuels (illicéité, dol, contrainte notamment). Par ailleurs, si le contrat de travail prévoit une telle clause d’arbitrage, le droit fédéral ne permet pas à l’employé de participer à une procédure de classe. En particulier, la Cour n’a jamais jugé qu’un tel droit pouvait être déduit de la loi fédérale « National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) ». De la sorte, cette loi s’harmonise sans conflit avec la loi fédérale sur l’arbitrage. La récente opinion contraire du « National Labor Relations Board” est ici rejetée. La Cour précise en outre que dite opinion contraire ne mérite pas de déférence au sens de la jurisprudence Chevron, cette problématique n’étant pas laissée par le Congrès à l’appréciation de l’administration.
La Cour dispose ainsi que seuls les moyens permettant d’invoquer la nullité de tous types de contrats peuvent être invoqués pour tenter d’obtenir la nullité d’une clause d’arbitrage. De la sorte, un moyen de nullité qui n’est invocable que contre une clause d’arbitrage est dépourvu d’efficacité. C’est pourquoi en l’espèce les employés ne sont pas parvenus à obtenir la nullité de la clause d’arbitrage de leurs contrats de travail : le moyen de nullité invoqué (une disposition du droit fédéral qui prévoit l’action de classe dans les rapports de travail, et qui ne pourrait être écartée par une clause d’arbitrage 1 :1) n’est pas un motif susceptible d’être invoqué dans tous les litiges contractuels.
Par leur clause d’arbitrage, les parties peuvent moduler la procédure et choisir par exemple la possibilité d’un arbitrage de classe. Celui-ci ne peut cependant pas être imposé s’il n’a pas été choisi.
Cette décision a provoqué une opinion dissidente virulente.

Tuesday, March 20, 2018

Cyan, Inc. v. Beaver County Employees Retirement Fund, Docket No. 15-1439


Securities: Jurisdiction: Class actions: Removal (state to federal):



This case presents two questions about the Securities Litigation Uniform Standards Act of 1998 (SLUSA), 112 Stat. 3227. First, did SLUSA strip state courts of jurisdic­tion over class actions alleging violations of only the Secu­rities Act of 1933 (1933 Act), 48 Stat. 74, as amended, 15 U. S. C. §77a et seq.? And second, even if not, did SLUSA empower defendants to remove such actions from state to federal court? We answer both questions no.

The petitioners in this case are Cyan, a telecommunica­tions company, and its officers and directors (together, Cyan). The respondents are three pension funds and an individual (together, Investors) who purchased shares of Cyan stock in an initial public offering.

(…) Complaint alleges that Cyan’s offering documents con­tained material misstatements, in violation of the 1933 Act. It does not assert any claims based on state law.

We granted Cyan’s petition for certiorari, 581 U. S. ___ (2017), to resolve a split among state and federal courts about whether SLUSA deprived state courts of jurisdiction over “covered class actions” asserting only 1933 Act claims.

(…) By its terms, §77v(a)’s “except clause” does nothing to deprive state courts of their jurisdiction to decide class actions brought under the 1933 Act. And Cyan’s various appeals to SLUSA’s purposes and legislative history fail to overcome the clear statutory language. The statute says what it says—or perhaps better put here, does not say what it does not say. State-court jurisdiction over 1933 Act claims thus continues undisturbed.

(…) This Court has emphasized that SLUSA’s operative provisions (including its state-law class-action bar, see §77p(b)) apply to only “transactions in covered securities”: The statute “ex­presses no concern” with “transactions in uncovered securities”—precisely because they are not traded on national markets. Chadbourne & Parke LLP v. Troice, 571 U. S. 377, ___ (2014) (slip. op., at 9) (…) Those securities, the Court explained, are “primarily of state concern,” and SLUSA “maintains state legal authority” to address them. Chadbourne, 571 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 13).

(…) The 1934 Act regulates all trading of securities whereas the 1933 Act addresses only securities offerings. See Blue Chip Stamps, 421 U. S., at 752 (characterizing the 1933 Act as “a far narrower statute”).



(U.S.S.C., March 20, 2018, Cyan, Inc. v. Beaver County Employees Retirement Fund, Docket No. 15-1439, J. Kagan, unanimous)



SLUSA ne retire nullement la compétence des cours des états de connaître des actions de classe n'invoquant que la violation de la loi de 1933 (Securities Act of 1933).

En outre, SLUSA ne confère pas à la défenderesse le droit d'obtenir le transfert de la procédure en faveur d'une cour fédérale.

En l'espèce, la demande alléguait que l'offre publique initiale de papiers-valeurs contenait des indications matérielles de nature à induire l'investisseur en erreur, en violation de la loi de 1933. La demande ne formulait pas de prétentions basées sur le droit étatique.

(Le cadre de la loi de 1933 (ne réglemente que les offres publiques) est plus restreint que celui de la loi de 1934 (règlemente aussi les transactions postérieures à l'offre publique initiale)).

(SLUSA ne s'applique pas aux papiers-valeurs qui ne sont pas échangés sur le marché national, c'est le droit des états qui s'applique ici).

Monday, June 17, 2013

Maracich v. Spears



Attorney: solicitation of clients, class actions: Petitioners, South Carolina residents, sued respondents (attorneys) for violating the federal Driver’s Privacy Protection Act of 1994 (DPPA) by obtaining, disclosing, and using petitioners’ personal in­formation from motor vehicle records for bulk solicitation without their express consent;  DPPA exception per­mitting disclosure of personal information “for use in connection with any civil, criminal, administrative, or arbitral proceeding,” including “investigation in anticipation of litigation.” 18 U. S. C. §2721(b)(4). Held: An attorney’s solicitation of clients is not a permissible purpose covered by the (b)(4) litigation exception; (b)(4) is an excep­tion to both the DPPA’s general ban on disclosure of “personal infor­mation” and the ban on release of “highly restricted personal infor­mation.” An exception to a general policy statement is “usually read . . . narrowly in order to preserve the [provision’s] primary operation.” Commissioner v. Clark, 489 U. S. 726, 739. Reading (b)(4) to permit disclosure of personal information when there is any connection be­tween protected information and a potential legal dispute would sub­stantially undermine the DPPA’s purpose of protecting a right to pri­vacy in motor vehicle records. Subsection (b)(4)’s “in connection with” language must have a limit, and a logical and necessary conclusion is that an attorney’s solicitation of prospective clients falls outside of that limit. “Investigation in anticipation of litigation” is best understood to allow background research to determine if there is a supportable the­ory for a complaint or a theory sufficient to avoid sanctions for filing a frivolous lawsuit, or to help locate witnesses for deposition or trial.
Attorneys also have other alternatives to aggregate a class, including, e.g. soliciting plaintiffs through traditional and permitted advertising (U.S.S.Ct., 17.06.2013, Maracich v. Spears, J. Kennedy).

Avocats : sollicitation de clients, actions de classe : des avocats ont obtenu du service des automobiles les coordonnées de différents titulaires en vue de leur adresser une lettre leur proposant d’introduire une action de classe contre un vendeur de véhicules automobiles. Apprenant ainsi que leurs données personnelles avaient été transmises sans leur consentement à ces avocats, les personnes inscrites au service des automobiles ont actionné les avocats sur la base d’une loi fédérale interdisant la divulgation par ledit service de données personnelles, sauf si ces données sont destinées à être utilisées en rapport avec un procès ou un arbitrage, ou si elles sont destinées à être utilisées dans le cadre d’investigation en anticipation d’un procès.
A première vue, dans la mesure où une action de classe est contemplée, la divulgation des informations paraît permise, mais tel n’est pas le cas ici : en effet, le système légal pris dans son ensemble accorde une très grande protection aux données détenues par le service des automobiles, de sorte que la sollicitation commerciale du fait des avocats ne permet pas à cette sollicitation de tomber dans la notion « d’investigations en prévision d’un procès ». Il est à noter toutefois que la notion «d’investigations en prévision d’un procès » permet des recherches d’arrière-plan pour déterminer s’il existe une théorie juridique permettant d’ouvrir action ou une théorie suffisante pour éviter des sanctions suite au dépôt d’une action frivole, ou encore pour découvrir des témoins. Rien n’empêche au demeurant les avocats de préparer leur action de classe en recourant à la méthode traditionnelle de la publicité pour trouver soit des parties à la procédure envisagée, soit des témoins.

Maracich v. Spears



Class actions : cf. Attorney: solicitation of clients, class actions  (U.S.S.Ct., 17.06.2013, Maracich v. Spears, J. Kennedy).

Actions de classe : voir décision du 17.06 2013 concernant la sollicitation de clients en vue d’introduire une telle action.

Wednesday, February 27, 2013

Amgen Inc. v. Connecticut Retirement Plans and Trust Funds



Securities: damages in a private securities-fraud action under §10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and Securities and Exchange Commission Rule 10b–5: to recover damages in a private securities-fraud action under §10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and Securities and Exchange Commission Rule 10b–5, a plaintiff must prove, among other things, reliance on a material misrepresentation or omission made by the de­fendant. Matrixx Initiatives, Inc. v. Siracusano, 563 U. S. ___, ___. Requiring proof of direct reliance “would place an unnecessarily un­realistic evidentiary burden on a plaintiff who has traded on an im­personal market.” Basic Inc. v. Levinson, 485 U. S. 224, 245. Thus, this Court has endorsed a “fraud-on-the-market” theory, which per­mits securities-fraud plaintiffs to invoke a rebuttable presumption of reliance on public, material misrepresentations regarding securities traded in an efficient market. Id., at 241–249. The fraud-on-the­ market theory facilitates the certification of securities-fraud class ac­tions by permitting reliance to be proved on a classwide basis. Invoking the fraud-on-the-market theory, respondent Connecticut Retirement Plans and Trust Funds (Connecticut Retirement) sought certification of a securities-fraud class action under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 23(b)(3) against biotechnology company Amgen Inc. and several of its officers (collectively, Amgen). The District Court certified the class, and the Ninth Circuit affirmed. The Ninth Circuit rejected Amgen’s argument that Connecticut Retirement was re­quired to prove the materiality of Amgen’s alleged misrepresenta­tions and omissions before class certification in order to satisfy Rule 23(b)(3)’s requirement that “questions of law or fact common to class members predominate over any questions affecting only individual members.” The Ninth Circuit also held that the District Court did not err in refusing to consider rebuttal evidence that Amgen had presented on the issue of materiality at the class-certification stage. Held: proof of materiality is not a prerequisite to certification of a secu­rities-fraud class action seeking money damages for alleged violations of §10(b) and Rule 10b–5 (U.S.S.Ct., 27.02.13, Amgen Inc. v. Connecticut Retirement Plans and Trust Funds, J. Ginsburg).


Papiers- valeurs (securities) : action en dommages-intérêts basée sur une fraude en matière de transactions portant sur des papiers-valeurs. Pour se faire adjuger ses conclusions en dommages-intérêts, le demandeur doit notamment prouver s'être fié à une fausse représentation ou à une fausse omission de nature matérielle faite par le défendeur. N'est pas requise la preuve d'un lien de causalité direct entre la tromperie et l'acte ou l'omission du demandeur sur le marché. Ainsi, la Cour retient la théorie de la "fraude sur le marché", selon laquelle le demandeur peut invoquer la présomption réfragable qu'il s'est fié à de fausses déclarations matérielles et publiques relatives à des papiers-valeurs échangés sur un marché effectif. Cette théorie facilite la certification d'actions de classe en matière de papiers-valeurs, en permettant d'apporter la preuve de "s'être fié à" au niveau de la classe elle-même et non au niveau d'un demandeur individuel. Est rejeté l'argument consistant à soutenir que les demandeurs sont tenus de prouver la matérialité de la représentation frauduleuse pour obtenir la certification de la classe.

Monday, June 20, 2011

Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes



Class actions: the certification of the plaintiff class was not consistent with Rule 23(a); Rule 23(a)(2) requires a party seeking class certification to prove that the class has common “questions of law or fact.” Their claims must depend upon a common contention of such a nature that it is capable of classwide resolution—which means that determination of its truth or falsity will resolve an issue that is central to the validity of each one of the claims in one stroke.   Here, proof of commonality necessarily overlaps with respondents’ merits contention that Wal-Mart engages in a pattern or practice of discrimination. The crux of a Title VII inquiry is “the reason for a particular employment decision,” Cooper v. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, 467 U. S. 867, 876, and respondents wish to sue for millions of employment decisions at once. Without some glue holding together the alleged reasons for those decisions, it will be impossible to say that examination of all the class members’ claims will produce a common answer to the crucial discrimination question; General Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon, 457 U. S. 147, describes the proper approach to commonality. On the facts of this case, the conceptual gap between an individual’s discrimination claim and “the existence of a class of persons who have suffered the same injury,” id., at 157–158, must be bridged by “significant proof that an employer operated under a general policy of discrimination,” id., at 159, n. 15. Such proof is absent here. Wal-Mart’s announced policy forbids sex discrimination, and the company has penalties for denials of equal opportunity. Respondents’ only evidence of a general discrimination policy was a sociologist’s analysis asserting that Wal-Mart’s corporate culture made it vulnerable to gender bias. But because he could not estimate what percent of Wal-Mart employment decisions might be determined by stereotypical thinking, his testimony was worlds away from “significant proof” that Wal-Mart “operated under a general policy of discrimination.”; the only corporate policy that the plaintiffs’ evidence convincingly establishes is Wal-Mart’s “policy” of giving local supervisors discretion over employment matters. While such a policy could be the basis of a Title VII disparate-impact claim, recognizing that a claim “can” exist does not mean that every employee in a company with that policy has a common claim. In a company of Wal-Mart’s size and geographical scope, it is unlikely that all managers would exercise their discretion in a common way without some common direction. Respondents’ attempt to show such direction by means of statistical and anecdotal evidence falls well short; Respondents’ backpay claims were improperly certified under Rule 23(b)(2); claims for monetary relief may not be certified under Rule 23(b)(2), at least where the monetary relief is not incidental to the requested injunctive or declaratory relief. It is unnecessary to decide whether monetary claims can ever be certified under the Rule because, at a minimum, claims for individualized relief, like backpay, are excluded. Rule 23(b)(2) applies only when a single, indivisible remedy would provide relief to each class member. The Rule’s history and structure indicate that individualized monetary claims belong instead in Rule 23(b)(3), with its procedural protections of predominance, superiority, mandatory notice, and the right to opt out; because Rule 23 cannot be interpreted to “abridge, enlarge or modify any substantive right,” 28 U. S. C. §2072(b), a class cannot be certified on the premise that Wal-Mart will not be entitled to litigate its statutory defenses to individual claims (U.S.S.Ct., 20.06.11, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes, J. Scalia).

Action de classe : pour obtenir de la Cour la certification d’une classe, il faut démontrer que la classe est confrontée à des questions juridiques ou à des questions de fait communes. Les prétentions communes doivent être capables de résolution judiciaire pour tous les membres de la classe. Dans un litige basé sur le Titre VII de la loi fédérale sur les droits civils, la preuve des prétentions communes des membres l’emporte sur le bien-fondé de l’allégation selon laquelle l’employeur pratique une politique de discrimination. En effet, le point central d’une action fondée sur le Titre VII est la détermination des motifs à l’origine d’une décision particulière de l’employeur. Dans la présente espèce, les requérants entendent agir en une seule fois pour contester des millions de décisions de l’employeur. Sans élément qui lie les motifs à la base de ces décisions, il est impossible de dire que l’examen des motifs à la base de chaque décision contestée de l’employeur produira un résultat discriminatoire identique. La distance entre une plainte individuelle pour discrimination et l’existence d’une classe de personnes ayant subi le même préjudice doit être comblée par une preuve significative que l’employeur opère selon une politique générale de discrimination. Une telle preuve est absente en l’espèce. La politique officielle de l’employeur Wal-Mart interdit la discrimination fondée sur le sexe, et l’entreprise a prévu des pénalités pour les cas de violations de la politique d’égale opportunité. Comme unique preuve d’une politique générale de discrimination, les demandeurs disposent de l’analyse d’un sociologue soutenant que la culture d’entreprise de Wal-Mart la rend vulnérable à la discrimination fondée sur le sexe. Mais comme il ne pouvait pas estimer quel pourcentage des décisions de l’employeur était fondé sur un raisonnement stéréotypé, son témoignage est à mille lieues de satisfaire au critère de la preuve significative que l’employeur opère selon une politique générale de discrimination.