Showing posts with label Conflict of laws. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Conflict of laws. Show all posts

Wednesday, February 21, 2024

U.S. Supreme Court, Great Lakes Insurance SE v. Raiders Retreat Realty CO., LLC, Docket No. 22-500


Maritime Insurance Contract

 

Maritime Law

 

Choice-of-Law Provisions in Maritime Contracts

 

Federal Common Law Court

 

Circuit Split

 

 

 

“Federalism in admiralty and the scope of application of state law in maritime cases is one of the most perplexing issues in the law”.

 

 

 

 

 

This Court granted certiorari to resolve a split in the Courts of Appeals regarding the enforceability of choice-of law provisions in maritime contracts.

 

 

Maritime contracts often contain choice-of-law provisions that designate the law of a particular jurisdiction to control future disputes. The enforceability of those choice-of-law provisions is governed by federal maritime law. Applying federal maritime law in this case, we conclude that choice-of-law provisions in maritime contracts are presumptively enforceable, with certain narrow exceptions not applicable here.

 

 

Under the Constitution, federal courts possess authority to create and apply maritime law. Article III of the Constitution extends the federal judicial power to “all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction.” U. S. Const., Art. III, § 2, cl. 1. That grant of jurisdiction contemplates a system of maritime law “‘coextensive with, and operating uniformly in, the whole country.’” Norfolk Southern R. Co. v. James N. Kirby, Pty Ltd., 543 U. S. 14, 28 (2004) (quoting American Dredging Co. v. Miller, 510 U. S. 443, 451 (1994)). The purposes of that uniform system include promoting “the great interests of navigation and commerce” and maintaining the United States’ “diplomatic relations.” 3 J. Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States §1666, p. 533 (1st ed. 1833); see also Norfolk Southern, 543 U. S., at 28; Exxon Corp. v. Central Gulf Lines, Inc., 500 U. S. 603, 608 (1991). To maintain that uniform system, federal courts “make decisional law” for maritime cases. Norfolk Southern, 543 U. S., at 23. When a federal court decides a maritime case, it acts as a “federal common law court, much as state courts do in state common-law cases.” Air & Liquid Systems Corp. v. DeVries, 586 U. S. 446, 452 (2019) (internal quotation marks omitted); see Dutra Group v. Batterton, 588 U. S. 358, 360 (2019). “Subject to direction from Congress,” the federal courts fashion maritime rules based on, among other sources, “judicial opinions, legislation, treatises, and scholarly writings.” Air & Liquid Systems, 586 U. S., at 452; see also Exxon Co., U. S. A. v. Sofec, Inc., 517 U. S. 830, 839 (1996); East River S. S. Corp. v. Transamerica Delaval Inc., 476 U. S. 858, 864 (1986). Exercising that authority, federal courts follow previously “established” maritime rules. Wilburn Boat Co. v. Fireman’s Fund Ins. Co., 348 U. S. 310, 314 (1955).

 

 

No bright line exists for determining when a federal maritime rule is “established,” but a body of judicial decisions can suffice. See Bisso v. Inland Waterways Corp., 349 U. S. 85, 89–90 (1955). In the absence of an established rule, federal courts may create uniform maritime rules. See, e.g., Norfolk Southern, 543 U. S., at 23. When no established rule exists, and when the federal courts decline to create a new rule, federal courts apply state law. See Wilburn Boat, 348 U. S., at 320–321. For purposes of this general overview, we will stop there, as the “issue of federalism in admiralty and the scope of application of state law in maritime cases is one of the most perplexing issues in the law.” 1 T. Schoenbaum, Admiralty and Maritime Law §4:4, p. 268 (6th ed. 2018).

 

 

The initial question here is whether there is an established federal maritime rule regarding the enforceability of choice-of-law provisions. The answer is yes. Longstanding precedent establishes a federal maritime rule: Choice-of-law provisions in maritime contracts are presumptively enforceable. As a leading treatise says, it is “well established in admiralty that choice of law clauses” will “normally be enforced.” 1 Schoenbaum, Admiralty and Maritime Law §5:19, at 427; see also id., §4:4, at 275; 2 id., §19:6, at 431–432 (similar).

 

 

The Court has pronounced that forum-selection clauses in maritime contracts are “prima facie valid” under federal maritime law and “should be enforced unless” doing so would be “‘unreasonable’ under the circumstances.” The Bremen v. Zapata Off-Shore Co., 407 U. S. 1, 10 (1972); see also Carnival Cruise Lines, Inc. v. Shute, 499 U. S. 585, 593–594 (1991).

 

 

(…) Moreover, by supplying some advance assurance about the governing law, choice-of-law provisions help maritime shippers decide on the front end “what precautions to take” on their boats, American Dredging, 510 U. S., at 454, and enable marine insurers to better assess risk, see Brief for American Institute of Marine Underwriters et al. as Amici Curiae 12–13. Choice-of-law provisions therefore can lower the price and expand the availability of marine insurance. In those ways, choice-of-law provisions advance a fundamental purpose of federal maritime law: the “‘protection of maritime commerce.’” Exxon Corp., 500 U. S., at 608 (quoting Sisson v. Ruby, 497 U. S. 358, 367 (1990)).

 

 

Rather, the Wilburn Boat Court simply determined what substantive rule applied when a party breached a warranty in a marine insurance contract. See id., at 311–316. The Court concluded that no “established federal admiralty rule” governed the warranty issue. Id., at 314; see also id., at 314–316. And the Court declined to create a federal maritime rule on that question, both because States historically regulated insurance and because federal courts were poorly positioned to “unify insurance law on a nationwide basis.” Id., at 319; see also id., at 316–320. The Court therefore ordered that the warranty issue be tried “under appropriate state law.” Id., at 321.

 

 

(…) Moreover, Wilburn Boat held only that state law applied as a gap-filler in the absence of a uniform federal maritime rule on a warranty issue. 348 U. S., at 314–316. Here, however, no gap exists because a uniform federal rule governs the enforceability of choice-of-law clauses in maritime contracts.

 

 

After Wilburn Boat, maritime actors realized that a lot would depend on which State’s law governed each individual maritime dispute—a question that would be unclear in advance. See 2 Schoenbaum, Admiralty and Maritime Law §19:9. Choice-of-law provisions soon emerged as a ready answer to that problem. See W. von Bittner, The Validity and Effect of Choice of Law Clauses in Marine Insurance Contracts, 53 Ins. Counsel J. 573, 573, 578–579 (1986).

 

 

(…) The bottom line: As a matter of federal maritime law, choice-of-law provisions in maritime contracts are presumptively enforceable.

 

Of course, to say that choice-of-law clauses are presumptively enforceable as a matter of federal maritime law means that there are exceptions when the clauses are not enforceable. The parties agree that the exceptions are narrow—indeed, Raiders “freely concedes that in most every instance, a choice-of-law provision contained in a maritime insurance contract will be effective.” Tr. of Oral Arg. 54. In particular, the parties agree that courts should disregard choice-of-law clauses in otherwise valid maritime contracts when the chosen law would contravene a controlling federal statute, see Knott v. Botany Mills, 179 U. S. 69, 77 (1900), or conflict with an established federal maritime policy, see The Kensington, 183 U. S. 263, 269–271 (1902). For example, The Kensington declined to enforce a choice-of-law clause because the chosen law would have released a carrier from liability for negligence—a result that federal maritime law forbids. See ibid. The parties further agree that, as a matter of federal maritime law, courts may disregard choice-of-law clauses when parties can furnish no reasonable basis for the chosen jurisdiction. Cf. Carnival Cruise, 499 U. S., at 594–595; The Bremen, 407 U. S., at 10, 16–17. For example, it would be unreasonable to pick the law of a distant foreign country without some rational basis for doing so. That said, the “no reasonable basis” exception must be applied with substantial deference to the contracting parties, recognizing that maritime actors may sometimes choose the law of a specific jurisdiction because, for example, that jurisdiction’s law is “well developed, well known, and well regarded.” Brief for American Institute of Marine Underwriters et al. as Amici Curiae 17.

 

 

Unable to successfully invoke those exceptions, Raiders says that federal maritime law should recognize an additional exception when enforcing the law of the State designated by the contract would contravene the fundamental public policy of the State with the greatest interest in the dispute. We disagree with that argument. Indeed, Raiders’ request for that novel maritime exception is essentially a repackaged version of its initial argument that the enforceability of choice-of-law provisions in maritime contracts should be determined by state law. The argument fares no better here, for essentially the same reasons.

 

 

(…) We disagree with Raiders’ related suggestion that we adopt the choice-of-law approach set forth in §187(2)(b) of the Second Restatement of Conflict of Laws. In relevant part, that subsection says that choice-of-law provisions are enforceable unless they conflict with “a fundamental policy of a state which has a materially greater interest than the chosen state in the determination of the particular issue.” Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws §187(2)(b). As the commentary to the Restatement carefully explains, however, that rule arose out of interstate cases and does not deal directly with federal-state conflicts, including those that arise in federal enclaves like maritime law. See id. §2, Comment c; §3, Comment d; §10, Comment a.

 

 

 

 

Secondary sources: T. Schoenbaum, Admiralty and Maritime Law §4:4, p. 268 (6th ed. 2018); J. Coyle, The Canons of Construction for Choice-of-Law Clauses, 92 Wash. L. Rev. 631, 633, n. 6 (2017); M. Sturley, Restating the Law of Marine Insurance: A Workable Solution to the Wilburn Boat Problem, 29 J. Mar. L. & Com. 41, 45 (1998); G. Gilmore & C. Black, Law of Admiralty §§1–17, 2–8 (2d ed. 1975); W. von Bittner, The Validity and Effect of Choice of Law Clauses in Marine Insurance Contracts, 53 Ins. Counsel J. 573, 573, 578–579 (1986); Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws §187, Comment f, p. 567 (1969).

 

 

 

 

(U.S. Supreme Court, Great Lakes Insurance SE v. Raiders Retreat Realty CO., LLC, Feb. 21, 2024, Docket No. 22-500, J. Kavanaugh, Unanimous)

 

Friday, May 19, 2023

U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, Green Enterprises, LLC v. Hiscox Syndicates Limited at Lloyd’s of London; XL Catlin Lloyd’s Syndicate 2003; Amlin Lloyd’s Syndicate 2001; Canopius Lloyd’s Syndicate 4444; Noa Lloyd’s Syndicate 3902; Blenheim Lloyd’s Syndicate 5886; Brit Lloyd’s Syndicate 2987/2988, Docket No. 21-1542


Insurance Law

 

Motion to Compel Arbitration

 

Question of First Impression (First Circuit)

 

Conflicts Between State Laws Regulating Insurance and Acts of Congress

 

Preemption

 

Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, June 10, 1958, 21 U.S.T. 2517, 330 U.N.T.S. (A Self-Executing Treaty)

 

Comity

 

 

 

 

Green Enterprises, LLC ("Green"), a Puerto Rican recycling company, filed an insurance claim after a fire destroyed one of its plants. The underwriters of Green's insurance policy, all syndicates at Lloyd's of London ("Underwriters"), denied the claim, prompting Green to initiate this lawsuit. Pointing to an arbitration clause in the insurance policy, the district court declined to decide the parties' coverage dispute and granted Underwriters' motion to compel arbitration. Green then timely filed this appeal. As we will explain, this appeal presents a question of first impression in this circuit that turns on the interactions among Puerto Rico law, two federal statutes, and a multilateral treaty to which the United States is a party. For the following reasons, we affirm the judgment of the district court granting Underwriters' motion to compel arbitration and dismissing Green's claims without prejudice.

 

 

The arbitration clause provides: If the Insured and the Underwriters fail to agree in whole or in part regarding any aspect of this Policy, each party shall, within ten (10) days after the demand in writing by either party, appoint a competent and disinterested arbitrator and the two chosen shall before commencing the arbitration select a competent and disinterested umpire. The arbitrators together shall determine such matters in which the Insured and the Underwriters shall so fail to agree and shall make an award thereon, and if they fail to agree, they will submit their differences to the umpire and the award in writing of any two, duly verified, shall determine the same. The Parties to such arbitration shall pay the arbitrators respectively appointed by them and bear equally the expenses of the arbitration and the charges of the umpire.

 

 

Our analysis begins with the McCarran-Ferguson Act, Pub. L. No. 79-15, 59 Stat. 33 (1945) (codified at 15 U.S.C. §§1011–1015). Generally, a federal statute preempts any state law with which the federal statute directly conflicts. See PLIVA, Inc. v. Mensing, 564 U.S. 604, 617–18 (2011). The McCarran-Ferguson Act largely flips this general rule on its head as applied to conflicts between state laws regulating insurance and most acts of Congress. It states: "No Act of Congress shall be construed to invalidate, impair, or supersede any law enacted by any State for the purpose of regulating the business of insurance... unless such Act specifically relates to the business of insurance." 15 U.S.C. §1012(b).

 

 

The McCarran-Ferguson Act specifically defines "State" to include Puerto Rico. 15 U.S.C. §1015. (Fn. 2).

 

 

The Supreme Court "has long recognized the distinction between self-executing treaties that automatically have effect as domestic law, and non-self-executing treaties that--while they constitute international law commitments--do not by themselves function as binding federal law." Medellín, 552 U.S. at 504.

 

 

Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, June 10, 1958, 21 U.S.T. 2517, 330 U.N.T.S. 3 (the "Convention")—the multilateral treaty that Chapter II of the FAA "implements." See GE Energy Power Conversion Fr. SAS, Corp. v. Outokumpu Stainless USA, LLC, 140 S. Ct. 1637, 1644 (2020); 9 U.S.C. §201 ("The Convention shall be enforced in United States courts in accordance with this chapter.").

 

 

The text of the Convention makes plain that Article II (3) provides a clear "directive to domestic courts." Medellín, 552 U.S. at 508. Article II (3) by its express terms directly commands courts to channel arbitrable disputes to arbitration: "The court... shall... refer the parties to arbitration...."As the Ninth Circuit described, "This provision is addressed directly to domestic courts, mandates that domestic courts 'shall' enforce arbitration agreements, and 'leaves no discretion to the political branches of the federal government whether to make enforceable the agreement-enforcing rule it prescribes.'" CLMS Mgmt. Servs. Ltd. P'shipv. Amwins Brokerage of Ga., LLC, 8 F.4th 1007, 1013 (9th Cir. 2021) (quoting Safety Nat'l Cas. Corp. v. Certain Underwriters at Lloyd's, London, 587 F.3d 714, 735 (5th Cir. 2009) (en banc) (Clement, J., concurring)), cert. denied, 142 S.Ct. 862 (2022). Based on this characterization, that court then concluded, "A straightforward application of the textual analysis outlined in Medellín compels the conclusion that Article II, Section 3 is self-executing...." Id.

 

 

(…) Green does not argue that insurance disputes generally constitute a subject that is not "capable of settlement by arbitration" under the Convention, and any such argument would be meritless. See Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc., 473 U.S. 614, 639 n. 21 (1985) ("Congress may specify categories of claims it wishes to reserve for decision by our own courts without contravening this Nation's obligations under the Convention. But we decline to subvert the spirit of the United States' accession to the Convention by recognizing subject-matter exceptions where Congress has not expressly directed the courts to do so."). (Fn. 7).

 

 

In sum, none of Green's arguments can overcome the self-executing nature of the plain text of Article II (3). That article, which is not an act of Congress, has the force of law and applies directly to preempt Puerto Rico law. We need not address whether Puerto Rico insurance law would reverse-preempt Chapter II of the FAA were Article II (3) non-self-executing.

 

 

The McCarran-Ferguson Act calls for reverse-preemption only of "Acts of Congress"; any policy preference expressed within it regarding state regulation of insurance does not bear on the relationship between state law and a self-executing treaty provision. And the policy considerations weigh strongly in favor of enforcement here, as "the emphatic federal policy in favor of arbitral dispute resolution... applies with special force in the field of international commerce." Mitsubishi Motors Corp., 473 U.S. at 631; see also id. at 629 ("Concerns of international comity, respect for the capacities of foreign and transnational tribunals, and sensitivity to the need of the international commercial system for predictability in the resolution of disputes require that we enforce the parties' arbitration agreement, even assuming that a contrary result would be forthcoming in a domestic context.").

 

 

For the foregoing reasons, the judgment of the district court is affirmed.

 

 

 

 

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, May 19, 2023, Green Enterprises, LLC v. Hiscox Syndicates Limited at Lloyd’s of London; XL Catlin Lloyd’s Syndicate 2003; Amlin Lloyd’s Syndicate 2001; Canopius Lloyd’s Syndicate 4444; Noa Lloyd’s Syndicate 3902; Blenheim Lloyd’s Syndicate 5886; Brit Lloyd’s Syndicate 2987/2988, Docket No. 21-1542)

 

Monday, April 22, 2019

U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, Fresh Results, LLC, v. ASF Holland, B.V., Total Produce, PLC, Docket No. 18-11595


Forum Non Conveniens
Conflicts of Laws
Dismissal
Jurisdiction
Enforcement of Judgments

Fresh Results, an American company, arranged bulk shipments of blueberries for ASF Holland, a Dutch company that repacks wholesale produce to sell to European customers.

ASF Holland created reports about the results of its inspection of the shipments, and those reports determined the final price it paid for the blueberries. Fresh Results filed a complaint against ASF Holland in the Southern District of Florida, alleging that it had falsified the reports and fraudulently deflated the price. ASF Holland moved to dismiss the complaint on the ground that the Netherlands was a more convenient forum for the suit, and the district court agreed.

Because we agree that the district court abused its discretion when it failed to consider the relevant public factors and committed two errors in its analysis of the private factors, we vacate and remand.

(…) During the second season, one of the growers hired an auditor to make an unannounced inspection of a blueberry shipment at ASF Holland’s facility in the Netherlands. The auditor allegedly discovered that the blueberries were still in their original freight package, even though ASF Holland had reported to Fresh Results that the shipment had been inspected, sorted, and repacked. After learning of the auditor’s inspection, Fresh Results demanded that ASF Holland pay the market price for each shipment of blueberries it had received, but ASF Holland refused.

Fresh Results filed a complaint, which it later amended, against ASF Holland in the Southern District of Florida. Fresh Results asserted claims of breach of contract, negligent misrepresentation, fraud, conversion, and tortious interference with its business relationship with the growers. It alleged that ASF Holland fraudulently promised a high reference price but then deflated the actual price it paid by sending false reports. According to Fresh Results, ASF Holland manipulated the price by understating the amount paid by its European customers and by falsely inflating its expenses in the reports. ASF Holland informed the district court that it would pursue counterclaims against Fresh Results for sending substandard blueberries.

ASF Holland then moved to dismiss the complaint for failure to state a claim and forum non conveniens.

Because “the forum non conveniens determination is committed to the sound discretion of the trial court,” we review for abuse of discretion.

Under the doctrine of forum non conveniens, a district court may decline to exercise its jurisdiction when a foreign forum is better suited to adjudicate the dispute. See Kolawole v. Sellers, 863 F.3d 1361, 1369 (11th Cir. 2017). The “central purpose” of forum non conveniens is “to ensure that the trial is convenient.” Id. The doctrine should not be invoked “lightly . . . because it effectively deprives the plaintiff of his favored forum,” id., and so a defendant bears the burden of justifying dismissal based on forum non conveniens, La Seguridad, 707 F.2d at 1309. To satisfy this burden, the defendant must establish that “(1) an adequate alternative forum is available, (2) the public and private factors weigh in favor of dismissal, and (3) the plaintiff can reinstate his suit in the alternative forum without undue inconvenience or prejudice.” Tazoe v. Airbus S.A.S., 631 F.3d 1321, 1330 (11th Cir. 2011) (quoting Leon v. Millon Air, Inc., 251 F.3d 1305, 1310–11 (11th Cir. 2001)).

The second part of the forum non conveniens analysis—the balancing of the private and public factors—is a “comparative inquiry that requires the district court to weigh the ‘relative’ advantages and disadvantages of each respective forum.” The private factors “pertain to the interests of the participants in the litigation.” One of these factors is “the relative ease of access to sources of proof,” which includes the “availability of compulsory process for attendance of unwilling, and the cost of obtaining attendance of willing, witnesses.” Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 501, 508 (1947); see also Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 241 n.6. Other factors are the “possibility of view of premises, if view would be appropriate to the action” and the enforceability of a judgment, if one is obtained, Gulf Oil, 330 U.S. at 508. And a court may consider “all other practical problems that make trial of a case easy, expeditious and inexpensive.” Id. The public factors “pertain to the relative interests of the two fora.” Tazoe, 631 F.3d at 1333. Among other things, the public factors consider “the administrative difficulties flowing from court congestion,” “the ‘local interest in having localized controversies decided at home,’” and “the unfairness of burdening citizens in an unrelated forum with jury duty.” Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 241 n.6 (quoting Gulf Oil, 330 U.S. at 509). A court may also consider what law will govern the action, including “the avoidance of unnecessary problems in conflicts of laws” and “the application of foreign law.” Id.

Fresh Results argues that the district court abused its discretion when it failed to consider all relevant public factors after concluding that the private factors were not in equipoise. The equipoise standard employed by the district court comes from dicta in our caselaw. Although our holdings are precedential, our dicta are not. See United States v. Caraballo-Martinez, 866 F.3d 1233, 1244 (11th Cir. 2017). Dicta refer to “those portions of an opinion that are not necessary to deciding the case then before us.” Id. In contrast, our holdings “constitute the precedent, as a point necessarily decided” in that case. Bryan A. Garner et al., The Law of Judicial Precedent § 4, at 44 (2016); accord Powell v. Thomas, 643 F.3d 1300, 1304–05 (11th Cir. 2011) (explaining that “a holding is comprised both of the result of the case and those portions of the opinion necessary to that result by which we are bound”). And we have explained that, “regardless of what a court says in its opinion, the decision can hold nothing beyond the facts of that case.” Edwards v. Prime, Inc., 602 F.3d 1276, 1298 (11th Cir. 2010).

(…) We clarified that the public factors do not “enter the equation only when the private interest factors are at or near equipoise.” Leon, 251 F.3d at 1311. Although “the private factors are generally considered more important than the public factors,” we explained that the public factors are not superfluous, even when the private factors are far from equipoise. Id. And we opined that “the better rule is to consider both factors in all cases,” which “has been our approach in recent cases.” Id.; see also SME Racks, Inc. v. Sistemas Mecanicos Para Electronica, S.A., 382 F.3d 1097, 1100 n.5 (11th Cir. 2004) (“We have clarified that . . . courts should consider both public and private factors in all cases.”)

(…) Enforcement of Judgments, U.S. Dep’t of State,


Thursday, July 12, 2018

Raytheon Co. v. Indigo Systems Corp., Docket No. 16-1945


Conflict of laws: Forum non conveniens: Choice of law: Injunction:

Chick Kam Choo v. Exxon Corp., 486 U.S. 140 (1988).

In Chick Kam Choo, the Supreme Court held that a federal district court that had previously dismissed claims on forum non conveniens and choice-of-law grounds could enjoin the plaintiffs from reasserting their Texas state law claims in state court. 486 U.S. at 150–51. The Supreme Court explained that such an injunction would be proper under the relitigation exception to the Anti-Injunction Act because the validity of the Texas law claim was adjudicated in the original federal action when the district court decided that under applicable choice-of-law principles, the law of Singapore, rather than Texas, controlled the petitioner’s suit. Id. at 150.

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, July 12, 2018, Raytheon Co. v. Indigo Systems Corp., Docket No. 16-1945 (2016-1945, 2016-2050), J. Chen)

Si une cour fédérale juge dans une affaire que la cour compétente est à l’étranger et que le droit applicable est un droit étranger, elle peut, par une injonction, prohiber la saisine subséquente d’une cour d’un état pour ce qui est de cette même affaire.

Thursday, June 14, 2018

Animal Science Products, Inc. v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceutical Co., Docket No. 16-1220


Conflict of laws: Foreign law: Antitrust: Export: Act of state doctrine: Foreign sovereign compulsion doctrine: Comity (international): Common law:

When foreign law is relevant to a case instituted in a federal court, and the foreign government whose law is in contention submits an official statement on the meaning and interpretation of its domestic law, may the federal court look beyond that official statement? The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit answered generally “no,” ruling that federal courts are “bound to defer” to a foreign government’s construction of its own law, whenever that construction is “reasonable.” In re Vitamin C Antitrust Litigation, 837 F. 3d 175, 189 (2016).
We hold otherwise. A federal court should accord respectful consideration to a foreign government’s submission, but is not bound to accord conclusive effect to the foreign government’s statements. Instead, Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 44.1 instructs that, in determining foreign law, “the court may consider any relevant material or source . . . whether or not submitted by a party.” As “the court’s determination must be treated as a ruling on a question of law,” Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 44.1, the court “may engage in its own research and consider any relevant material thus found,” Advisory Committee’s 1966 Note on Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 44.1, 28 U. S. C. App., p. 892. Because the Second Circuit ordered dismissal of this case on the ground that the foreign government’s statements could not be gainsaid, we vacate that court’s judgment and remand the case for further consideration.
Petitioners, U. S.-based purchasers of vitamin C, filed a class-action suit against four Chinese corporations that manufacture and export the nutrient. The U. S. purchasers alleged that the Chinese sellers, two of whom are respondents here, had agreed to fix the price and quantity of vitamin C exported to the United States from China, in violation of §1 of the Sherman Act, 15 U. S. C. §1. More particularly, the U. S. purchasers stated that the Chinese sellers had formed a cartel “facilitated by the efforts of their trade association,” the Chamber of Commerce of Medicines and Health Products Importers and Exporters. Complaint in No. 1:05–CV–453, Docket No. 1, ¶43. The Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation consolidated the instant case and related suits for pretrial proceedings in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York.
The Chinese sellers moved to dismiss the U. S. purchasers’ complaint on the ground that Chinese law required them to fix the price and quantity of vitamin C exports. Therefore, the Chinese sellers urged, they are shielded from liability under U. S. antitrust law by the act of state doctrine, the foreign sovereign compulsion doctrine, and principles of international comity.
At common law, the content of foreign law relevant to a dispute was treated “as a question of fact.” Miller, Federal Rule 44.1 and the “Fact” Approach to Determining Foreign Law: Death Knell for a Die-Hard Doctrine, 65 Mich. L. Rev. 613, 617–619 (1967). In 1801, this Court endorsed the common-law rule, instructing that “the laws of a foreign nation” must be “proved as facts.” Talbot v. Seeman, 1 Cranch 1, 38 (1801); see, e.g., Church v. Hubbart, 2 Cranch 187, 236 (1804).
Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 44.1, adopted in 1966, fundamentally changed the mode of determining foreign law in federal courts. The Rule specifies that a court’s determination of foreign law “must be treated as a ruling on a question of law,” rather than as a finding of fact. (…) (Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 26.1 establishes “substantially the same” rule for criminal cases. Advisory Committee’s 1966 Note on Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 26.1, 18 U. S. C. App., p. 709).
(…) In the spirit of “international comity,” Société Nationale Industrielle Aérospatiale v. United States Dist. Court for Southern Dist. of Iowa, 482 U. S. 522, 543, and n. 27 (1987), a federal court should carefully consider a foreign state’s views about the meaning of its own laws. (…) But the appropriate weight in each case will depend upon the circumstances; a federal court is neither bound to adopt the foreign government’s characterization nor required to ignore other relevant materials. When a foreign government makes conflicting statements, or, as here, offers an account in the context of litigation, there may be cause for caution in evaluating the foreign government’s submission. Given the world’s many and diverse legal systems, and the range of circumstances in which a foreign government’s views may be presented, no single formula or rule will fit all cases in which a foreign government describes its own law. Relevant considerations include the statement’s clarity, thoroughness, and support; its context and purpose; the transparency of the foreign legal system; the role and authority of the entity or official offering the statement; and the statement’s consistency with the foreign government’s past positions.
(…) The Court of Appeals additionally mischaracterized the Ministry’s brief as a “sworn evidentiary proffer.” 837 F. 3d, at 189. In so describing the Ministry’s submission, the Court of Appeals overlooked that a court’s resolution of an issue of foreign law “must be treated as a ruling on a question of law.” Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 44.1. The Ministry’s brief, while a probative source for resolving the legal question at hand, was not an attestation to facts.
The understanding that a government’s expressed view of its own law is ordinarily entitled to substantial but not conclusive weight is also consistent with two international treaties that establish formal mechanisms by which one government may obtain from another an official statement characterizing its laws. Those treaties specify that “the information given in the reply shall not bind the judicial authority from which the request emanated.” European Convention on Information on Foreign Law, Art. 8, June 7, 1968, 720 U. N. T. S. 154; see Inter-American Convention on Proof of and Information on Foreign Law, Art. 6, May 8, 1979, O. A. S. T. S. 1439 U. N. T. S. 111 (similar). Although the United States is not a party to those treaties, they reflect an international practice inconsistent with the Court of Appeals’ “binding, if reasonable” resolution.

Secondary sources: Miller, Federal Rule 44.1 and the “Fact” Approach to Determining Foreign Law: Death Knell for a Die-Hard Doctrine, 65 Mich. L. Rev. 613, 617–619 (1967); C. Wright & A. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure §2441, p. 324 (3d ed. 2008).

(U.S.S.C., June 14, 2018, Animal Science Products, Inc. v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceutical Co., Docket No. 16-1220, J. Ginsburg, unanimous)

En l’espèce, des acheteurs U.S. de vitamine C ont déposé une « class action » contre quatre entreprises chinoises qui la fabrique et l’exporte.
Quand une cour fédérale doit considérer un droit étranger et que le gouvernement étranger émet une déclaration officielle exposant le sens et l’interprétation de ce droit, la cour fédérale se doit de prendre en compte dite déclaration, mais n’est pas tenue de la suivre, en application de la Règle 44.1 de procédure civile fédérale. En pratique, pour déterminer le contenu du droit étranger, la cour peut entreprendre sa propre recherche et s’inspirer de toutes sources utiles.
Les importateurs, demandeurs à l’action de classe, allèguent que les entreprises chinoises venderesses se sont entendues pour fixer les prix de vente et les quantités, en violation de la §1 du Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. §1). Les entreprises défenderesses soutiennent que le droit chinois leur impose de fixer le prix de la vitamine C et les quantités exportées. De la sorte, invoquent-elles, elles seraient protégées par le droit U.S. de l’antitrust, par l’« act of state doctrine », par la « foreign sovereign compulsion doctrine » et par les principes de l’ « international comity ».
Sous le régime de la Common law, la détermination du contenu du droit étranger était traitée comme une question de fait, et non de droit. La Cour a repris sur ce point la Common law par une décision de 1801.
Ce régime a été fondamentalement modifié par la Règle 44.1 de procédure civile fédérale (et par la Règle 26.1 de procédure pénale fédérale) : la détermination du droit étranger se traite désormais comme une question de droit.
L’essence de l’ « international comity » impose à une cour fédérale de considérer avec soin les vues d’un état étranger au sujet de son propre droit. Mais le poids à donner à ces vues dépend des circonstances du cas d’espèce. Une cour fédérale n’est pas tenue de se conformer à ces vues, et n’est pas tenue non plus d’ignorer d’autres sources permettant d’appréhender le contenu du droit étranger. Ainsi, quand un gouvernement étranger émet des opinions contradictoires ou, comme ici, s’exprime dans le contexte d’une procédure judiciaire, il se peut que l’avis du gouvernement étranger doive être apprécié avec retenue. En pratique, l’avis du gouvernement étranger doit être analysé sous l’angle de sa clarté, de sa rigueur, de sa motivation, de son contexte, de son but, de la transparence du système juridique étranger, du rôle et de l’autorité de l’entité gouvernementale qui s’est exprimée, et de sa consistance avec les prises de position passées dudit gouvernement étranger.
(L’autorité inférieure, à tort, a caractérisé la déclaration du gouvernement étranger comme une attestation officielle donnée sous serment).
Les Etats-Unis ne sont pas parties aux deux traités suivants : European Convention on Information on Foreign Law, Inter-American Convention on Proof of and Information on Foreign Law. Cependant, la Cour observe que la Règle 44.1 est conforme à ces deux traités. 


Monday, August 29, 2016

Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. v. Super. Ct., S221038, Cantil-Sakauye, C.J., Liu, Cuéllar, Kruger, JJ., concur., Werdegar, Chin, Corrigan, JJ., diss.


Jurisdiction (personal, general v. specific):  Forum: Conflict of laws: Code of Civil Procedure section 410.10 (Cal.): Quash service of summons (motion to quash): Service of process: Adverse publicity:


Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (BMS), a pharmaceutical manufacturer, conducts significant business and research activities in California but is neither incorporated nor headquartered here. In March 2012, eight separate amended complaints were filed in San Francisco Superior Court by or on behalf of 678 individuals, consisting of 86 California residents and 592 nonresidents, all of whom allegedly were prescribed and ingested Plavix, a drug created and marketed by BMS, and as a result suffered adverse consequences. BMS contests the propriety of a California court‘s exercising personal jurisdiction over it for purposes of adjudicating the nonresident plaintiffs‘ claims.
Under the particular circumstances present here, we conclude personal jurisdiction is authorized by Code of Civil Procedure section 410.10, which extends jurisdiction to the maximum extent permissible under the United States Constitution. Although BMS‘s business contacts in California are insufficient to invoke general jurisdiction, which permits the exercise of jurisdiction over a defendant regardless of the subject of the litigation, we conclude the company‘s California activities are sufficiently related to the nonresident plaintiffs‘ suits to support the invocation of specific jurisdiction, under which personal jurisdiction is limited to specific litigation related to the defendant‘s state contacts. (See Vons Companies, Inc. v. Seabest Foods, Inc. (1996) 14 Cal.4th 434, 446 (Vons).)
Accordingly, we affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeal, which held that BMS was subject to the personal jurisdiction of the California courts on the basis of specific jurisdiction.

Each amended complaint contains the same 13 causes of action: strict products liability (based on both design defect and manufacturing defect); negligence; breach of implied warranty; breach of express warranty; deceit by concealment (Civ. Code, §§ 1709, 1710); negligent misrepresentation; fraud by concealment; unfair competition (Bus. & Prof. Code, § 17200); false or misleading advertising (Bus. & Prof. Code, § 17500); injunctive relief for false or misleading advertising (Civ. Code, § 1750 et. seq.); wrongful death; and loss of consortium.

BMS moved to quash service of summons on the ground that the court lacked personal jurisdiction over it to adjudicate the claims of the 592 nonresident plaintiffs, who are real parties in interest in this proceeding.

(…) But the declarations submitted by BMS also disclosed that the company maintains substantial operations in California, including five offices that are primarily research and laboratory facilities employing approximately 164 people. BMS additionally employs approximately 250 sales representatives in the state. BMS also has a small office in Sacramento to represent and advocate for the company in state government affairs.

(…) Furthermore, plaintiffs noted that BMS maintains a registered agent for service of process in California.

Discussion:

Under the federal Constitution, a court exercising jurisdiction over a nonresident defendant comports with due process as long as the defendant has such minimum contacts with the state that the assertion of jurisdiction does not violate traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice. (Vons, supra, 14 Cal.4th at p. 444, quoting International Shoe Co. v. Washington (1945) 326 U.S. 310, 316 (International Shoe).) Plaintiffs bear the initial burden of proving state contacts sufficient to justify the exercise of jurisdiction. (Vons, supra, 14 Cal.4th at p. 449.)

(International Shoe, supra, 326 U.S. at p. 316.) Because the corporate personality is a fiction, however, a corporation‘s presence in a state must be determined by the activities of its agents (ibid.), and the demands of due process in this context may be met by such contacts of the corporation with the state of the forum as make it reasonable, in the context of our federal system of government, to require the corporation to defend the particular suit which is brought there. (Id. at p. 317.)

In some cases, the corporation‘s continuous activities within the state have been found so substantial and of such a nature as to justify suit against it on causes of action arising from dealings entirely distinct from those activities. (International Shoe, supra, 326 U.S. at p. 318.) This has become known as general, or all-purpose, jurisdiction. (Daimler, 571 U.S. ___ [134 S.Ct. 746, 751, 754].)

In other circumstances, where the company‘s activities in the forum state are more limited, general jurisdiction may be lacking but jurisdiction may nonetheless be proper because the litigation is derived from obligations that arise out of or are connected with the company‘s activities within the state. (International Shoe, supra, 326 U.S. at pp. 319, 320.) This has become known as specific, or case-linked, jurisdiction. (Daimler, 571 U.S. at p. ___ [134 S.Ct. at pp. 751, 754]; Goodyear Dunlop Tires Operations, S.A. v. Brown (2011) 564 U.S. ___, ___ [131 S.Ct. 2846, 2851] (Goodyear).)

More recently, in Goodyear, supra, 564 U.S. ___ [131 S.Ct. 2846], and Daimler, supra, 571 U.S. ___ [134 S.Ct. 746], the high court significantly elaborated upon its analysis of general jurisdiction, clarifying that in order to support the exercise of general jurisdiction over a corporation its contacts with the forum state must be so extensive as to render the company essentially at home in the state. (Daimler, supra, 571 U.S. at p. ___ [134 S.Ct. at p. 751; see Goodyear, supra, 564 U.S. at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at p. 2851].) The United States Supreme Court‘s description of general jurisdiction for purposes of the federal due process clause, as set forth in Goodyear and Daimler, is binding upon us and, as explained below, dictates the conclusion that BMS is not subject to the general jurisdiction of California courts.

In Goodyear, the high court concluded that the plaintiffs failed to establish support for the exercise of general jurisdiction where the defendant companies were based abroad, sold only a limited quantity of their products in the forum state, and the cause of action — involving the defendants‘ products sold abroad — also arose abroad. In that case, two young men from North Carolina were killed in a bus accident outside Paris, France. (Goodyear, supra, 564 U.S. at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at p. 2851].) Their parents attributed the accident to an allegedly defective tire manufactured by Goodyear‘s subsidiary in Turkey and filed suit in a North Carolina state court, naming Goodyear and its subsidiaries in Turkey, France, and Luxembourg as defendants. (Id. at pp. ___-___ [131 S.Ct. at pp. 2851-2852].) Although a small percentage of their tires was distributed in North Carolina by other Goodyear affiliates, the foreign subsidiaries challenged the North Carolina court‘s exercise of general jurisdiction over them, contending that they did no direct business and employed no workers in North Carolina. (Id. at pp. ___, ___ [131 S.Ct. at pp. 2850, 2852].)

The high court first noted that North Carolina courts lacked specific jurisdiction to adjudicate the controversy because the accident had occurred abroad and the allegedly defective tire had been manufactured and sold abroad. (Goodyear, supra, 564 U.S. at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at p. 2851].) The court then held that the defendant corporations‘ contacts with North Carolina were also insufficient for general jurisdiction: Unlike the defendant in Perkins, whose sole wartime business activity was conducted in Ohio, petitioners are in no sense at home in North Carolina. Their attenuated connections to the State . . . fall far short of . . . the continuous and systematic general business contacts‘ necessary to empower North Carolina to entertain suit against them on claims unrelated to anything that connects them to the State. (Goodyear, supra, at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at p. 2857], quoting Helicopteros,  466 U.S. at p. 416.) The Goodyear court explained its at home rule for corporations as analogous to a natural person‘s domicile in the forum state: For an individual, the paradigm forum for the exercise of general jurisdiction is the individual‘s domicile; for a corporation, it is an equivalent place, one in which the corporation is fairly regarded as at home. (Goodyear, supra, at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at pp. 2853-2854].)

(…) (Daimler, supra, 571 U.S. at p. ___ [134 S.Ct. at p. 760].) The court reiterated its observation in Goodyear that a corporation‘s state of incorporation and its principal place of business are the two paradigm all-purpose forums. (Daimler, supra, at p. ___ (134 S.Ct. at p. 760).) Although it did not limit general jurisdiction to those two circumstances, the Daimler court explained that general jurisdiction may not be based merely on activities in the forum state that can be characterized as continuous and systematic; rather, the corporation‘s activities must be so continuous and systematic as to render it essentially at home in the forum State. (Id. at p. ___ [134 S.Ct. at p. 761], quoting Goodyear, supra, 564 U.S. at p. ___ [131 S.Ct. at p. 2851].)

Furthermore, in responding to a concurring opinion by Justice Sotomayor, the Daimler majority made clear that the general jurisdiction inquiry does not focus solely on the magnitude of the defendant‘s in-state contacts. (Daimler, 571 U.S. at p. ___, fn. 20 [134 S.Ct. at p. 762, fn. 20].) Instead, general jurisdiction calls for an appraisal of a corporation‘s activities in their entirety, nationwide and worldwide. (Ibid.) Otherwise, a corporation with significant operations in many states would be deemed at home in all of them. (Ibid.) The majority reasoned that to allow the adjudication in California of a dispute arising solely in Argentina merely based on MBUSA‘s sales activities in the state would give the same global adjudicatory reach to every state in which DaimlerChrysler or its subsidiary had sizeable sales. The court rejected such an exorbitant exercise of all-purpose jurisdiction because it would defeat the ability of out-of-state defendants to structure their conduct so as to have some predictability regarding the possibility of being subjected to litigation in a given forum state. (Id. at p. ___ [134 S.Ct. at pp. 761-762].)

The nonresident plaintiffs also rely on the fact that BMS has long been registered to do business in California and has maintained an agent for service of process here. California law, however, requires a foreign corporation transacting business here to name an agent in the state for service of process. (Corp. Code, § 2105, subd. (a)(5).) As the high court has explained, the purpose of state statutes requiring the appointment by foreign corporations of agents upon whom process may be served is primarily to subject them to the jurisdiction of local courts in controversies growing out of transactions within the State. (Morris & Co. v. Ins. Co. (1929) 279 U.S. 405, 408-409.) Accordingly, a corporation‘s appointment of an agent for service of process, when required by state law, cannot compel its surrender to general jurisdiction for disputes unrelated to its California transactions. The designation of an agent for service of process and qualification to do business in California alone are insufficient to permit general jurisdiction. (Thomson v. Anderson (2003) 113 Cal.App.4th 258, 268, citing DVI, Inc. v. Superior Court (2002) 104 Cal. App.4th 1080, 1095; Gray Line Tours v. Reynolds Electrical & Engineering Co. (1987) 193 Cal.App.3d 190, 194.)

Specific jurisdiction: The basic precepts governing specific jurisdiction set forth in pre-Daimler decisions are well settled. In ascertaining the existence of specific jurisdiction, courts must analyze the relationship among the defendant, the forum, and the litigation. (Helicopteros, 466 U.S. at p. 414, quoting Shaffer v. Heitner (1977) 433 U.S. 186, 204.) The question of whether a court may exercise specific jurisdiction over a nonresident defendant involves examining (1) whether the defendant has purposefully directed its activities at the forum state (Keeton v. Hustler Magazine, Inc. (1984) 465 U.S. 770, 774 (Keeton)); (2) whether the plaintiff‘s claims arise out of or are related to these forum-directed activities (Helicopteros, 466 U.S. at p. 414); and (3) whether the exercise of jurisdiction is reasonable and does not offend traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice. (Asahi Metal Industry Co. v. Superior Court (1987) 480 U.S. 102, 113 (Asahi), quoting International Shoe, 326 U.S. at p. 316.)

Our courts have also explained that the relatedness requirement for specific jurisdiction is determined under the substantial connection test, which is satisfied if there is a substantial nexus or connection between the defendant‘s forum activities and the plaintiff‘s claim. (Snowney, 35 Cal.4th at p. 1068.) This test requires courts to evaluate the nature of the defendant‘s activities in the forum and the relationship of the claim to those activities in order to answer the ultimate question under the due process clause: whether the exercise of jurisdiction in the forum is fair. Under the substantial connection test, the intensity of forum contacts and the connection of the claim to those contacts are inversely related. (Ibid.) The more wide ranging the defendant‘s forum contacts, the more readily is shown a connection between the forum contacts and the claim. Thus, a claim need not arise directly from the defendant‘s forum contacts in order to be sufficiently related to the contact to warrant the exercise of specific jurisdiction. . . . Indeed, only when the operative facts of the controversy are not related to the defendant‘s contact with the state can it be said that the cause of action does not arise from that contact. (Ibid.) Finally, the defendant‘s activities in the forum state need not be either the proximate cause or the but for cause of the plaintiff‘s injuries. (Ibid.)

In Snowney, a California resident filed a class action in this state against a group of Nevada hotels, alleging several causes of action related to their purported failure to provide notice of an energy surcharge imposed on hotel guests. (Snowney, 35 Cal.4th at pp. 1059-1060.) The hotels conducted no business and had no bank accounts or employees in California, but they advertised heavily in this state using California-based media, including billboards, newspapers, and ads aired on radio and television stations, as well as a Web site for room quotes and reservations. They also received a significant portion of their business from California residents who stayed at their hotels. (Id. at p. 1059.)
This court held that the Nevada hotels had purposefully availed themselves of the privilege of doing business in California because their Web site had touted the proximity of their hotels to California and provided driving directions from California to their hotels, thereby specifically targeting residents of California. (Snowney, 35 Cal.4th at p. 1064.) Furthermore, a side from their Web site specifically targeting California residents, defendants advertised extensively in California through billboards, newspapers, and radio and television stations located in California and regularly sent mailings advertising their hotels to selected California residents. (Id. at p. 1065.) In doing so, defendants necessarily availed themselves of the benefits of doing business in California and could reasonably expect to be subject to the jurisdiction of courts in California. (Ibid.)

In the present matter, there is no question that BMS has purposely availed itself of the privilege of conducting activities in California, invoking the benefits and protection of its laws, and BMS does not contend otherwise. Not only did BMS market and advertise Plavix in this state, it employs sales representatives in California, contracted with a California-based pharmaceutical distributor, operates research and laboratory facilities in this state, and even has an office in the state capital to lobby the state on the company‘s behalf. As in Snowney, 35 Cal.4th 1054, BMS actively and purposefully sought to promote sales of Plavix to California residents, resulting in California sales of nearly $1 billion over six years. Moreover, unlike the Nevada hotels in Snowney, BMS maintains a physical presence in California, employing well over 400 people here.
Accordingly, we conclude that BMS has purposefully availed itself of the benefits of California such that the first element of the test for specific personal jurisdiction is met concerning matters arising from or related to BMS‘s contacts with the state. On the basis of these extensive contacts relating to the design, marketing, and distribution of Plavix, BMS would be on clear notice that it is subject to suit in California concerning such matters. (World-Wide Volkswagen, 444 U.S. at p. 19.)

As previously described, for the purpose of establishing jurisdiction the intensity of forum contacts and the connection of the claim to those contacts are inversely related. (Vons, supra, 14 Cal.4th at p. 452.) a claim need not arise directly from the defendant‘s forum contacts in order to be sufficiently related to the contact to warrant the exercise of specific jurisdiction. (Id. at p. 452.)

In Vons, we assessed, on relatedness grounds, whether California courts could exercise specific jurisdiction over nonresident companies for causes of action involving out-of-state injuries that did not arise directly from their California contacts. (Vons, supra, 14 Cal.4th 434.) The plaintiffs in Vons were restaurant franchisees who brought an action for loss of business after contaminated hamburger meat caused illnesses in California and Washington, resulting in adverse publicity. In California, the franchisees sued two parties: the franchisor and the hamburger supplier, Vons Companies, Inc. (Vons), which processed hamburger patties in California and supplied them to the franchisor. Vons cross-complained against the franchisor and two Washington franchisees, suing them for negligence and indemnification for failing to properly cook the hamburger meat at restaurants in Washington, causing the injuries and deaths to customers there that gave rise to their joint liability with Vons. In Vons, the issue was whether the California court had specific jurisdiction over these two Washington-based franchisees, Seabest Foods, Inc., and Washington Restaurant Management, Inc. (WRMI). (Id. at pp. 440-442.) Seabest‘s and WRMI‘s contacts with California included food purchases from California suppliers, sending personnel to franchisor training sessions in California, remitting franchise payments to California, permitting the franchisor‘s inspection of their restaurants by its California-based inspectors, and the negotiation of their franchise agreements in California, which agreements stated that any disputes would be governed by California law. Because Vons was not a party to the franchise contracts for either Seabest or WRMI, those franchisees‘ contacts with California did not directly give rise to the causes of action asserted by Vons. (Vons, supra, 14 Cal.4th at p. 452.) Nevertheless, this court found personal jurisdiction was properly exercised over them in California because the forum contacts bore a substantial relation to the cause of action.

(…) (See Cornelison v. Chaney (1976) 16 Cal.3d 143, 151 [reasoning that the interstate nature of a defendant‘s business, while not an independent basis of jurisdiction weighs in favor of requiring him to defend here].)

(…) BMS relies on two cases to contend that California courts may not exercise specific jurisdiction over a nonresident defendant sued by a nonresident plaintiff for injuries occurring outside the state. But in both cases, the defendant company conducted no business in California and had no employees here. (Fisher Governor Co. v. Superior Court (1959) 53 Cal.2d 222, 224 [the defendant had no employees or property in California and has not appointed an agent to receive service of process here]; Boaz v. Boyle & Co. (1995) 40 Cal.App.4th 700, 715 (Boaz) [the defendant had not been licensed to do business in California, and . . . had neither salespersons, employees or representatives here, nor any offices, bank accounts, records or property in this state].)

(…) In sum, taking into account all of BMS‘s activities in this state and their relation to the causes of action at issue here, we conclude that the second element of specific jurisdiction is met, and hence, absent a showing to the contrary by BMS, it would be consistent with due process for it to be subject to litigation in this state concerning injuries allegedly caused by its product Plavix, including those injuries occurring out of state. Not only did BMS purposefully avail itself of the benefits of California by its extensive marketing and distribution of Plavix in this state and by contracting with a California distributor and employing hundreds of California-based salespersons, resulting in its substantial sales of that product here, but the company also maintains significant research and development facilities in California. All of plaintiffs‘ claims either arose from these activities or are related to those activities. The circumstance that numerous nonresident plaintiffs have filed their claims alongside those of resident plaintiffs does not alter or detract from this substantial nexus.

(…) As the high court explicitly declared in Keeton, a plaintiff‘s residence in the forum State is not a separate requirement, and lack of residence will not defeat jurisdiction established on the basis of defendant‘s contacts. (Keeton, 465 U.S. at p. 780; see also Walden v. Fiore, 571 U.S. ___, ___ [134 S.Ct. 1115, 1126] [it is the defendant, not the plaintiff or third parties, who must create contacts with the forum State]).

(…) We simply hold under this specific set of circumstances that, for purposes of establishing the requisite minimum contacts, plaintiffs‘ claims concerning the allegedly defective design and marketing of Plavix bear a substantial nexus with or connection to BMS‘s extensive contacts with California as part of Plavix‘s nationwide marketing, its sales of Plavix in this state, and its maintenance of research and development facilities here so as to permit specific jurisdiction.

As previously described, after a plaintiff meets the burden of showing that a defendant has purposefully established minimum contacts with the forum state, the burden then shifts to the defendant to show that the assertion of specific jurisdiction is unreasonable because it does not comport with traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice. (International Shoe, 326 U.S. at p. 316.)

In determining whether the defendant has established that the exercise of specific jurisdiction is unreasonable, the court must consider the burden on the defendant, the interests of the forum State, and the plaintiff‘s interest in obtaining relief. (Asahi, 480 U.S. at p. 113.)

(…) But our discussion here is merely focused on the reasonableness of asserting specific jurisdiction in this matter because our state has an interest in regulating conduct in the pharmaceutical industry that could pose a danger to public welfare, regardless of residency. 


(Cal. S.C., August 29, 2016, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. v. Super. Ct.,  S221038, Cantil-Sakauye, C.J., Liu, Cuéllar, Kruger, JJ., concur., Werdegar, Chin, Corrigan, JJ., diss.).


Qualité pour défendre, extranéité : selon la Constitution fédérale, un Tribunal est compétent pour connaître d’une action civile contre un défendeur domicilié hors de l’état si ce défendeur entretient avec le for des contacts suffisants pour que soient respectées les notions de « fair play » et de « substantial justice ». Autrement dit, l’affirmation de la compétence doit respecter la notion de « due process ».

La personnalité morale est une fiction, de sorte que l’intensité de la présence dans l’état d’une telle personne doit être déterminée par les activités de ses agents, et les exigences de la clause de « due process », dans ce contexte, peuvent être satisfaites par des contacts de l’entité avec l’état du for d’une intensité suffisante à rendre raisonnable, dans le cadre du système fédéraliste, l’imposition d’une obligation, pour dite entité, de défendre dans la procédure.

Dans certaines circonstances, quand les activités de l’entreprise dans l’état du for sont limitées, « general jurisdiction » peut faire défaut, mais la compétence du for peut tout de même être donnée, parce que le litige dérive d’obligations qui ont pris naissance suite aux activités de l’entreprise dans l’état, ou qui sont liées à ces activités. On parle ici de « specific jurisdiction », ou compétence liée au cas d’espèce.

Dans sa décision Goodyear (Goodyear, 564 U.S. ___ [131 S.Ct. 2846]), la Cour Suprême fédérale a conclu que les demandeurs n’avaient pu démontrer une compétence générale des Tribunaux de l’état de Caroline du Nord. Les entreprises défenderesses étaient domiciliées à l’étranger, ne vendaient qu’une quantité limitée de leur production dans l’état du for, et les prétentions déduites en justice avaient pris naissance à l’étranger. Dans cette affaire, deux jeunes hommes de Caroline du Nord avaient été tués dans un accident de bus près de Paris. Les parents de la victime avaient attribué l’accident à un pneu prétendument défectueux, fabriqué par une filiale de Goodyear en Turquie, et avaient ouvert action devant une cour de l’état de Caroline du Nord, désignant comme défenderesses Goodyear et ses filiales en Turquie, France et Luxembourg. Bien qu’un petit pourcentage de leurs pneus était distribué en Caroline du Nord par d’autres filiales de Goodyear, les entités défenderesses étrangères ont contesté être soumises à la juridiction générale des cours de Caroline du Nord, soutenant ne pas entretenir de relations d’affaire dans cet état et n’y maintenir aucun employé.

La Cour Suprême fédérale observa tout d’abord que les cours de Caroline du Nord ne pouvaient pas fonder leur compétence sur la notion de « specific jurisdiction », considérant que l’accident s’était produit à l’étranger et que le pneu prétendument défectueux avait été fabriqué et vendu à l’étranger. La Cour poursuivit en jugeant que la compétence générale faisait également défaut : les défenderesses n’étaient nullement « chez elles » (« at home ») en Caroline du Nord. Leurs contacts atténués avec cet état n’étaient pas suffisants pour être reconnus comme contacts commerciaux généraux, continus et systématiques, nécessaires pour permettre la compétence générale des cours de l’état, même s’agissant de prétentions sans aucun lien avec dit état. La décision Goodyear précise que la notion de « at home » pour les personnes morales est analogue à la notion de domicile pour les personnes physiques : pour une personne physique, le for paradigmatique, de compétence juridictionnelle générale, est celui du domicile. Pour une personne morale, il s’agit d’un lieu équivalent, où l’entité peut être considérée comme chez elle.

Dans sa décision Daimler, la Cour Suprême fédérale a repris ses considérants de sa décision Goodyear. Le lieu d’inscription au registre du commerce et le lieu de l’activité principale forment les deux fors compétents de manière générale. D’autres fors de ce type peuvent être trouvés, mais pour cela il faut davantage que de simples contacts continus et systématiques : les activités de la personne morale doivent être à ce point continues et systématiques qu’elles permettent de regarder dite personne morale comme domiciliée en ce lieu.

(…) Déterminer si une personne morale est soumise à la juridiction générale dans un état implique une analyse de ses activités dans tout le pays et même dans le monde entier. D’une méthode d’analyse différente résulterait qu’une personne morale avec des activités significatives dans de nombreux états pourrait être attraite de manière complète dans chacun d’eux. Un des objectifs du système est de permettre à un défendeur domicilié hors de l’état de structurer sa conduite permettant une certaine prédictibilité s’agissant de la possibilité d’avoir à défendre dans un état particulier.

La désignation d’un représentant ou agent de la personne morale à qui un acte officiel doit être délivré, et l’enregistrement de dite personne morale, sont deux facteurs insuffisants à établir la juridiction générale (le droit californien impose aux entreprises domiciliées hors de l’état de nommer un tel agent, Corp. Code, §2105, subd. (a)(5). Le but de cette règle est en premier lieu d’assujettir la personne morale à la juridiction des Tribunaux locaux dans les litiges qui ont pris naissance du fait des transactions menées à l’intérieur des frontières de l’état. Dès lors, la nomination par une personne morale d’un tel agent, nomination requise par la loi, ne saurait assujettir la personne morale à la juridiction (générale) des cours de l’état s’agissant de litiges sans lien avec dit état. 

En vue de déterminer si la cour de l’état est compétente pour connaître en l’espèce d’une action ouverte contre le défendeur (domicilié hors de l’état du for), la cour doit tout d’abord analyser si le défendeur a volontairement dirigé ses activités en direction de l’état du for, si les prétentions du demandeur sont liées à ces activités dirigées vers le for, et si l’acceptation de la compétence spécifique est raisonnable et n’affecte pas les notions traditionnelles d’équité et de « substantial justice ».

Le lien entre les activités du défendeur dans l’état du for et les prétentions du demandeur doit être substantiel pour permettre l’exercice d’une juridiction spécifique. Ces prétentions ne doivent pas nécessairement trouver leur source directe dans les contacts du défendeur avec l’état du for. Mais lorsque les faits relevant du litige sont sans lien avec les contacts entretenus par le défendeur avec le for, alors la juridiction spécifique ne pourra pas être exercée. Enfin, les activités du défendeur dans l’état du for ne doivent pas être en lien de causalité adéquate avec le dommage allégué par le demandeur.

La décision Snowney mérite attention. Dans cette affaire, un demandeur domicilié en Californie ouvre dans cet état une action de classe contre un groupe d’hôtels situé dans le Nevada, alléguant diverses prétentions liées à un manquement de signaler aux clients une surtaxe correspondant à des frais d’énergie. Les hôtels ne déploient pas d’activité en Californie, ne détiennent pas de comptes en banque dans cet état, et n’y ont point d’employés. Mais ils déploient en Californie une intense activité publicitaire, recourant aux médias de cet état (journaux, radio, télévision), comprenant un site Internet qui permet des réservations. En outre, une partie significative de leur chiffre d’affaire provient de personnes domiciliées en Californie qui séjournent dans les hôtels au Nevada. La Cour Suprême de Californie juge dans cette affaire Snowney que ces hôtels du Nevada se sont prévalus, de par leur comportement, du privilège de pouvoir déployer une activité économique en Californie, notamment du fait que leur site Internet se prévaut de la proximité des hôtels avec la Californie, tout en fournissant des instructions destinées aux résidents de Californie qui souhaiteraient se rendre dans ces hôtels. De la sorte, les résidents de Californie sont spécifiquement visés. D’autant plus le sont-ils si l’on prend en compte l’effort publicitaire déployé en Californie, ainsi que les courriels publicitaires adressés à des résidents de Californie préalablement sélectionnés. De la sorte, les hôtels défendeurs devaient raisonnablement s’attendre à devoir défendre en Californie.

Dans la présente espèce, il n’est pas contesté que BMS s’est intentionnellement prévalue du privilège de pouvoir conduire une activité économique en Californie, invoquant la protection de ses lois. BMS vend son produit P. et en fait la publicité dans cet état. BMS emploie une force de vente en Californie, a contracté avec un distributeur de produits pharmaceutiques domicilié dans cet état, y conduit des activités de recherche, et dispose d’un bureau dans sa capitale pour promouvoir les intérêts de l’entreprise.

En correspondance avec la décision Snowney, BMS a recherché activement et intentionnellement à promouvoir en Californie les ventes de son produit P., permettant un chiffre d’affaires de presque un milliard sur six ans dans cet état. Par ailleurs, à la différence des hôtels dans la décision Snowney, BMS maintient une présence physique en Californie, employant plus de 400 personnes dans cet état. Dès lors, la Cour conclut en l’espèce que BMS s’est mise volontairement au bénéfice de la juridiction de Californie, de sorte qu’est donné le premier élément du test définissant la juridiction spécifique dans le cadre d’une affaire liée aux contacts que BMS entretient avec la Californie. Sur la base de ces contacts étendus liés au design, au marketing et à la vente du produit P., BMS devait être consciente qu’elle était potentiellement sujette à défendre en Californie.

Dans sa décision Vons, la Cour Suprême de Californie a dû décider si les Tribunaux de Californie étaient compétents (« specific jurisdiction ») pour connaître d’une action ouverte contre des entreprises domiciliées hors de l’état, s’agissant de prétentions impliquant des dommages subis hors de l’état, prétentions ne trouvant pas une source directe dans les contacts que l’entreprise entretenait avec la Californie.

Les demandeurs dans la décision Vons étaient des franchisés dans le domaine de la restauration. Ils ont ouvert action pour perte de chiffre d’affaires après que de la viande de hamburger contaminée ait causé des maladies en Californie et dans l’état de Washington, avec une publicité négative comme conséquence. En Californie, les franchisés ont ouvert action contre deux parties : le franchiseur et le fournisseur de hamburger, Vons Companies, Inc., cette dernière société fabriquant en Californie les galettes de viande hachée avant de les fournir au franchiseur. Vons déposa une demande reconventionnelle contre le franchiseur et contre deux franchisés situés dans l’état de Washington, pour négligence, et en dommages-intérêts, pour avoir manqué de cuire adéquatement la viande de hamburger dans les restaurants de Washington, provoquant ainsi les dommages corporels aux clients, voir dans certains cas leur décès, ces dommages étant à la base de leur consorité au côté de Vons. Dans la décision Vons, la question était de savoir si les cours de Californie étaient spécifiquement compétentes dans l’action contre les deux franchisés basés dans l’état de Washington. Les contacts avec la Californie de ces deux franchisés comprenaient l’achat de produits alimentaires à des fournisseurs en Californie, l’envoi de personnel aux cours de formation organisés par le franchiseur en Californie, les paiements en direction de la Californie de ce qui était dû selon les termes des franchises, l’autorisation des inspections de leurs restaurants par des inspecteurs du franchiseur, inspecteurs basés en Californie, et la négociation des contrats de franchise en Californie, ces contrats prévoyant l’application du droit californien en cas de litige. Du fait que Vons n’était pas partie aux contrats de franchise, les contacts des franchisés avec la Californie ne constituaient pas directement la source des prétentions soulevées par Vons. Cependant, la présente Cour estima que les cours de Californie étaient compétentes pour connaître de l’action contre ces franchisés à Washington, du fait que les contacts avec le for californien étaient en relation substantielle avec les prétentions déduites en justice.

((…) La nature interétatique des affaires d’un défendeur ne constitue pas une base indépendante d’attribution de juridiction, mais doit être comptée comme l’un des éléments plaidant en faveur de la compétence du for).

(…) BMS s’est en outre fondée sur deux décisions pour soutenir que les Tribunaux de Californie ne seraient pas compétents pour connaître, sous la doctrine de « specific jurisdiction », d’une action ouverte par un demandeur qui n’est pas domicilié dans l’état, contre un défendeur qui ne l’est pas non plus, les conclusions de la demande se rapportant à un dommage qui s’était produit hors de l’état. Mais dans ces deux affaires, l’entreprise défenderesse n’exerçait pas d’activités économiques en Californie.

(…) Dès lors, considérant toutes les activités de BMS en Californie et leurs relations avec l’objet du présent litige, la Cour juge que les conditions posées à la reconnaissance de la « specific jurisdiction » sont remplies, selon les exigences du principe « due process ». BMS peut être contrainte de défendre en Californie s’agissant de dommages causés – est-il allégué – par son produit P., cela même si le dommage s’est produit hors de l’état. En effet, BMS s’est volontairement prévalue des lois et des institutions de Californie en y conduisant d’importantes activités de marketing et de vente de ce produit P., en concluant un contrat avec un distributeur de cet état, en employant des centaines de vendeurs domiciliés dans l’état. Le chiffre d’affaires dégagé par la vente du produit P. est substantiel. BMS maintient en outre des activités de recherche et développement en Californie. Toutes les prétentions du demandeur découlent de ces activités, ou sont liées à ces activités. L’observation que de nombreux demandeurs résidants hors de l’état ont ouvert action parallèlement aux demandeurs domiciliés dans l’état ne modifie en rien ce lien substantiel.

Comme indiqué précédemment, après que le demandeur ait satisfait à son obligation d’établir que le défendeur a volontairement établi des contacts minimaux avec l’état du for, le fardeau de la preuve passe au défendeur, qui peut tenter de démontrer que la juridiction spécifique n’est pas raisonnable, dans la mesure où elle serait en porte-à-faux avec les notions traditionnelles d’équité et de justice.

Pour déterminer si le défendeur a ou non établi le caractère déraisonnable d’une reconnaissance de compétence spécifique, la cour doit prendre en compte le fardeau qui serait ainsi porté par ledit défendeur, les intérêts de l’état du for, et l’intérêt du demandeur à obtenir réparation.

(…) Dans l’analyse du caractère raisonnable de la reconnaissance de la compétence, est d’importance l’intérêt de l’état du for à réglementer une conduite susceptible de poser un problème d’intérêt public, sans égard à la question de la résidence.