Showing posts with label Evidence. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Evidence. Show all posts

Friday, June 23, 2023

Permissible Lay Testimony - So-Called “Treating Physician” Doctrine


Lay Testimony

 

Lay Witness

 

Expert Testimony

 

Permissible Lay Testimony

 

So-Called “Treating Physician” Doctrine

 

Medical Report

 

Evidence

 

Federal Law

 

 

 

 

9 There is some gray area between lay and expert testimony when the lay witness has expertise and used that expertise to make first-hand observations. For example, in Henderson, we noted that a treating physician’s “diagnosis of the injury itself, that [the victim’s] jaw was fractured, would be permissible lay testimony.” 409 F.3d at 1300. But we have not held that any treating physician can testify as a lay witness about any diagnosis she made while treating the patient. The plain language of Federal Rule of Evidence 701(c) prohibits lay opinions “based on scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge within the scope of Rule 702.” Fed. R. Evid. 701. A diagnosis requiring more complex diagnostic reasoning than that required to notice a broken jaw may fall under Rule 701(c)’s prohibition. See Stephen A. Saltzburg et al., 3 Federal Rules of Evidence Manual § 701.02[7] (Matthew Bender 12th ed.) (“When the [treating] physician testifies that the plaintiff was coughing and running a fever, this is lay witness testimony governed by Rule 701. However, if the physician also testifies that he diagnosed the patient as having Reactive Airways Dysfunction Syndrome caused by exposure to a toxic chemical, then this is testimony based on scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge and must be qualified under Rule 702.”) (citing Williams v. Mast Biosurgery USA, Inc., 644 F.3d 1312, 1317–18 (11th Cir. 2011)). We also note that the Tenth Circuit cases we cited for the so-called “treating physician” doctrine, under which “[a] treating physician is not considered an expert witness if he or she testifies about observations based on personal knowledge, including the treatment of the party,” Davoll v. Webb, 194 F.3d 1116, 1138 (10th Cir. 1999), both predated the 2000 amendment to Rule 701. The other case was Weese v. Schukman, 98 F.3d 542 (10th Cir. 1996). In Williams v. Mast Biosurgery USA, we summarized “our discussion” of the treating physician doctrine in Henderson as follows: “[W]hen a treating physician’s testimony is based on a hypothesis, not the experience of treating the patient, it crosses the line from lay to expert testimony, and it must comply with the requirements of Rule 702.” 644 F.3d at 1317–18. We also emphasized that “[t]he testimony of treating physicians presents special evidentiary problems that require great care and circumspection by the trial court,” id. at 1316, and “that trial courts [must] be vigilant in ensuring that the reliability requirements set forth in Rule 702” are not “‘evaded through the simple expedient of proffering an expert in lay witness clothing.’” Id. at 1317 (quoting Henderson, 409 F.3d at 1300 (quoting Fed. R. Evid. 701 advisory committee’s note to 2000 amendment)). Here, the issue is what would have happened if the My Lady had a captain, a hypothetical that McCall cannot speak to as a lay witness. In an appropriate case, we should clarify when a lay witness goes too far in discussing observations that he made using his expertise. (Fn. 9).

 

 

 

 

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, June 23, 2023, Travelers Property Casualty Company of America v. Ocean Reef Charters LLC, Docket No. 21-14509, Publish)

 

 

 

Tuesday, April 6, 2021

U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, WI-LAN INC. v. SHARP ELECTRONICS CORPORATION, Docket No. 2020-1041

 

Patent Infringement

Evidence

Discovery

Source Code Printout

Expert as a Substitute for a Fact Witness?

 

Wi-LAN Inc. appeals two related judgments of the United States District Court for the District of Delaware, on summary judgment in one instance and by stipulation in the other, holding that Sharp Electronics Corporation and Vizio, Inc. did not infringe the asserted claims of U.S. Patent No. 6,359,654 (“the ’654 patent”) and U.S. Patent No. 6,490,250 (“the ’250 patent”). We affirm.

 

(…) Here, the district court concluded that the source code printout could not be admitted under Rule 703 because it was not authenticated and, as a result, Wi-LAN was attempting to use Rule 703 as a “‘backdoor’ to allow the admission into evidence of otherwise inadmissible declarations and other materials simply because they might assist the jury’s evaluation of an expert’s opinions.” J.A. 31. We agree. Wi-LAN attempts to do exactly what is impermissible under Rule 703 by using its expert as a substitute for a fact witness to circumvent the rules of evidence to admit otherwise inadmissible evidence.

 

Wi-LAN argues that experts typically rely on material, like source code, in reaching opinions about infringement. That is obviously correct. But Wi-LAN has not made a showing that source code experts reasonably rely on unauthenticated source code printouts.

 

In light of these admissibility issues, Wi-LAN’s fallback position is that the district court should have granted it additional time to obtain an admissible version of the source code. We disagree. Wi-LAN had ample time to obtain the source code and to find custodial witnesses to authenticate the source code over the course of discovery but failed to do so.

 

Wi-LAN had been on notice since early 2016 that it was going to need the system-on-chip source code from third parties to prove its direct infringement case. Throughout the litigation, Wi-LAN repeatedly requested extensions of time to obtain the source code from the third-party manufacturers. Ultimately, however, Wi-LAN only procured a single printout version of the source code with declarations after suing the third-party manufacturers.

 

Wi-LAN, as the district court found, “had ample time and opportunities over years of litigation to obtain evidence of infringement from the system-on-chip manufacturers” but failed to do so. J.A. 32. Given this record, the district court did not abuse its discretion in denying Wi-LAN an additional opportunity to obtain an admissible form of the source code.

 

Secondary Sources: Charles Alan Wright, Arthur R. Miller & Victor J. Gold, Federal Practice and Procedure § 6274 (2d ed. 2020).

 

 

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, April 6, 2021, WI-LAN INC. v. SHARP ELECTRONICS CORPORATION, Docket No. 2020-1041)

 

 

 

Tuesday, September 22, 2020

U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, Servotronics, Inc. v. Rolls-Royce PLC and The Boeing Company, Docket No. 19-1847

Discovery

 

Evidence

Application to Obtain Discovery for Use in Foreign Proceedings

In Private Foreign Arbitrations?

Ex Parte Application

Letter Rogatory

Letter of Request

Subpoena

Motion to Quash

 

Circuit Split: Section 1782(a) of Title 28 does not authorize the district courts to compel discovery for use in private foreign arbitrations (Second, Fifth and Seventh Circuit).

 

 

Section 1782(a) of Title 28 authorizes the district court to order a person within the district to give testimony or produce documents “for use in a proceeding in a foreign or international tribunal.” This case asks whether a private foreign arbitration is “a proceeding in a foreign or international tribunal” within the meaning of the statute.

 

Two decades ago, the Second and Fifth Circuits answered this question “no,” holding that § 1782(a) authorizes the district court to provide discovery assistance only to state-sponsored foreign tribunals, not private foreign arbitrations. Nat’l Broad. Co. v. Bear Stearns & Co., 165 F.3d 184, 191 (2d Cir. 1999); Republic of Kazakhstan v. Biedermann Int’l, 168 F.3d 880, 883 (5th Cir. 1999).

 

More recently, the Sixth Circuit reached the opposite conclusion, Abdul Latif Jameel Transp. Co. v. FedEx Corp. (In re Application to Obtain Discovery for Use in Foreign Proceedings), 939 F.3d 710, 714 (6th Cir. 2019), and the Fourth Circuit agreed, Servotronics, Inc. v. Boeing Co., 954 F.3d 209, 214 (4th Cir. 2020). We join the Second and Fifth Circuits and hold that § 1782(a) does not authorize the district court to compel discovery for use in a private foreign arbitration.

 

(…) The parties agreed to conduct the arbitration in London.

 

Servotronics thereafter filed an ex parte application in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois asking the court to issue a subpoena compelling Boeing to produce documents for use in the London arbitration. The application invoked 28 U.S.C. § 1782(a), and the judge initially granted it and issued the requested subpoena. Rolls-Royce intervened and moved to quash the subpoena, arguing that § 1782(a) does not permit a district court to order discovery for use in a private foreign commercial arbitration. Boeing intervened and joined the motion to quash. The judge reversed course and quashed the subpoena. She agreed with Rolls-Royce and Boeing that § 1782(a) does not authorize the court to provide discovery assistance in private foreign arbitrations. Servotronics appealed. Rolls-Royce and Boeing jointly defend the judge’s ruling.

 

Sections 1781 and 1782 of Title 28 govern the district court’s authority to provide discovery assistance in litigation in foreign and international tribunals. Section 1781 describes a formal judicial instrument known as a “letter rogatory”—a letter of request “issued by one court to a foreign court, requesting that the foreign court (1) take evidence from a specific person within the foreign jurisdiction ... and (2) return [it] ... for use in a pending case.” Letter of Request, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (11th ed. 2019).

 

Letters rogatory are transmitted through diplomatic agencies; the statute provides that the State Department may, either “directly, or through suitable channels, ... receive a letter rogatory issued, or request made, by a foreign or international tribunal, to transmit it to the tribunal, officer, or agency in the United States to whom it is addressed,” and “receive and return it after execution.” 28 U.S.C. § 1781(a)(1). The assistance is reciprocal; tribunals in the United States may issue letters rogatory through the State Department to a “foreign or international tribunal, officer, or agency.” Id. § 1781(a)(2).

 

(…) The order may be made pursuant to a letter rogatory issued, or request made, by a foreign or international tribunal or upon the applica- tion of any interested person and may direct that the testimony or statement be given, or the document or other thing be produced, before a person appointed by the court.

 

(…) For several reasons, we side with the Second and Fifth Circuits in this interpretive debate. First, the word “tribunal” is not defined in the statute, and dictionary definitions do not unambiguously resolve whether private arbitral panels are included in the specific sense in which the term is used here. (…) In short, canvassing dictionary definitions is inconclusive. In both common and legal parlance, the phrase “foreign or international tribunal” can be understood to mean only state-sponsored tribunals, but it also can be understood to include private arbitration panels. Both interpretations are plausible.

 

(…) Harmonizing this statutory language and reading it as a coherent whole suggests that a more limited reading of § 1782(a) is probably the correct one: a “foreign tribunal” in this context means a governmental, administrative, or quasi-governmental tribunal operating pursuant to the foreign country’s “practice and procedure.” Private foreign arbitrations, in other words, are not included.

 

(…) The discovery assistance authorized by § 1782(a) is notably broader than that authorized by the FAA. Most significantly, the FAA permits the arbitration panel—but not the parties—to summon witnesses before the panel to testify and produce documents and to petition the district court to enforce the summons. 9 U.S.C. § 7. Section 1782(a), in contrast, permits both foreign tribunals and litigants (as well as other “interested persons”) to obtain discovery orders from district courts. If § 1782(a) were construed to permit federal courts to provide discovery assistance in private foreign arbitrations, then litigants in foreign arbitrations would have access to much more expansive discovery than litigants in domestic arbitrations. It’s hard to conjure a rationale for giving parties to private foreign arbitrations such broad access to federal-court discovery assistance in the United States while precluding such discovery assistance for litigants in domestic arbitrations.

 

(…) For the foregoing reasons, we join the Second and Fifth Circuits in concluding that § 1782(a) does not authorize the district courts to compel discovery for use in private foreign arbitrations.

 

 

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, September 22, 2020, Servotronics, Inc. v. Rolls-Royce PLC and The Boeing Company, Docket No. 19-1847)

Tuesday, June 30, 2020

E-mails und Combox-Nachrichten als Beweismittel

E-mails und Combox-Nachrichten als Beweismittel

 

Strafrecht

Beweise

E-mails

Combox-Nachrichten

Datenschutz

 

(…) Aufgrund der glaubwürdigen Aussagen der drei Bankvertreter, der E-Mails und der Combox-Nachrichten sei der Konnex zwischen der Geldforderung und der Drohungen klar gegeben, begründet der Gerichtsvorsitzende (…) Dem Beschuldigten hätte klar sein müssen, dass seine Handlungen als Erpressung verstanden würden (Obergericht, Zürich, Urteil SB190 407 vom 30.6.2020, noch nicht rechtskräftig) (in NZZ vom 1. Juli 2020, S. 15).

Friday, March 13, 2020

U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Personalized Media Communications, LLC v. Apple, Inc., Docket No. 18-1936


Patent Interpretation
Claim Construction
Intrinsic Evidence:
-       Claims
-       Specifications
-       Prosecution History of the Patent
-       Understanding of One Skilled in the Art
Broadest Reasonable Interpretation

Appeal from the United States Patent and Trademark Office, Patent Trial and Appeal Board in No. IPR2016-00755.
Per recent regulation, the Board applies the Phillips claim construction standard to IPR petitions filed on or after November 13, 2018. See Changes to the Claim Construction Standard for Interpreting Claims in Trial Proceedings Before the Patent Trial and Appeal Board, 83 Fed. Reg. 51,340 (Oct. 11, 2018) (codified at 37 C.F.R. § 42.100(b)).
Because Apple filed its IPR petition before November 13, 2018, we apply the broadest reasonable interpretation standard.


The task of claim construction requires us to examine all the relevant sources of meaning in the patent record with great care, the better to guarantee that we determine the claim’s true meaning. Athletic Alts., 73 F.3d at 1578. “When construing claim terms, we first look to, and primarily rely on, the intrinsic evidence, including the claims themselves, the specification, and the prosecution history of the patent, which is usually dispositive.” Sunovion Pharm., Inc. v. Teva Pharm. USA, Inc., 731 F.3d 1271, 1276 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (first citing Phillips v. AWH Corp., 415 F.3d 1303, 1315 (Fed. Cir. 2005) (en banc); then citing Vitronics Corp. v. Conceptronic, Inc., 90 F.3d 1576, 1582 (Fed. Cir. 1996)). We consider these various sources of meaning “because the meaning of a claim term as understood by persons of skill in the art is often not immediately apparent, and because patentees frequently use terms idiosyncratically.” Phillips, 415 F.3d at 1314.

The prosecution history, in particular, “may be critical in interpreting disputed claim terms because it ‘contains the complete record of all the proceedings before the Patent and Trademark Office, including any express representations made by the applicant regarding the scope of the claims.’” Sunovion, 731 F.3d at 1276 (quoting Vitronics, 90 F.3d at 1582). Accordingly, even where “prosecution history statements do not rise to the level of unmistakable disavowal, they do inform the claim construction.” Shire Dev., LLC v. Watson Pharm., Inc., 787 F.3d 1359, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 2015). For example, an applicant’s repeated and consistent remarks during prosecution can define a claim term by demonstrating how the inventor understood the invention. Sunovion, 731 F.3d at 1277. Similarly, an applicant’s amendment accompanied by explanatory remarks can define a claim term by demonstrating what the applicant meant by the amendment. Tempo Lighting, Inc. v. Tivoli, LLC, 742 F.3d 973, 977–78 (Fed. Cir. 2014).

The broadest reasonable interpretation standard applies in this IPR proceeding. Thus, the Board’s interpretation must be reasonable in light of the specification, prosecution history, and the understanding of one skilled in the art. See Microsoft Corp. v. Proxyconn, Inc., 789 F.3d 1292, 1298 (Fed. Cir. 2015), overruled on other grounds by Aqua Prods., Inc. v. Matal, 872 F.3d 1290 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (en banc). The broadest reasonable interpretation must also take into account “the context of the entire patent.” Realtime Data, LLC v. Iancu, 912 F.3d 1368, 1374 (Fed. Cir. 2019) (quoting Phillips, 415 F.3d at 1312–13); see also In re Translogic Tech., Inc., 504 F.3d 1249, 1256–58 (Fed. Cir. 2007) (applying Phillips “best practices” to claim construction under broadest reasonable interpretation standard).

(…) Embodiments described in a specification can certainly inform the meaning of a disputed claim term, but “a particular embodiment appearing in the written description may not be read into a claim when the claim language is broader than the embodiment.” Resonate Inc. v. Alteon Websystems, Inc., 338 F.3d 1360, 1364–65 (Fed. Cir. 2003) (citing Electro Med. Sys., S.A. v. Cooper Life Scis., Inc., 34 F.3d 1048 (Fed. Cir. 1994)). So too if the claim language is narrower than the embodiment.

(…) Again, even where “prosecution history statements do not rise to the level of unmistakable disavowal, they do inform the claim construction.” Shire, 787 F.3d at 1366. An applicant’s repeated and consistent remarks during prosecution can define a claim term—especially where, as here, there is “no plain or ordinary meaning to the claim term” and the specification provides no clear interpretation. Sunovion, 731 F.3d at 1276–77. Similarly, an applicant’s amendment accompanied by explanatory remarks can define a claim term where, as here, the claim language and specification fail to provide meaningful guidance. Tempo Lighting, 742 F.3d at 977–78. Thus, the Board erred by effectively requiring the prosecution history evidence to rise to the level of a disclaimer in order to inform the meaning of the disputed claim term. Assuming without deciding that PMC’s statements and amendments were inadequate to give rise to a disclaimer, we still find that the prosecution history provides persuasive evidence that informs the meaning of the disputed claim phrase and addresses an ambiguity otherwise left unresolved by the claims and specification.

(…) Accordingly, we conclude that the applicant’s repeated and consistent statements during prosecution, along with its amendment to the same effect, are decisive as to the meaning of the disputed claim term.

((…) More than 280 columns of text in the specification of the ’091 patent).



(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, March 13, 2020, Personalized Media Communications, LLC v. Apple, Inc., Docket No. 18-1936)

Monday, August 27, 2018

Evidence: Mere allegations


Evidence: Mere allegations:

Enzo Biochem, Inc. v. Gen-Probe Inc., 424 F.3d 1276, 1284 (Fed. Cir. 2005) (“Attorney argument is no substitute for evidence.”)

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Aug. 27, 2018, Zheng Cai v. Diamond Hong, Inc., Docket No. 18-1688, Circuit Judge Wallach)

Tuesday, July 24, 2018

OTR Wheel Engineering, Inc. v. West Worldwide Services, Inc., Docket No. 16-35897


Evidence: Clear and convincing evidence: Preponderance of the evidence:

Clear and convincing evidence requires greater proof than preponderance of the evidence. To meet this higher standard, a party must present sufficient evidence to produce ‘in the ultimate factfinder an abiding conviction that [the asserted factual contentions are] highly probable.’ Sophanthavong v. Palmateer, 378 F.3d 859, 866–67 (9th Cir. 2004) (quoting Colorado v. New Mexico, 467 U.S. 310, 316 (1984)).

(U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, July 24, 2018, OTR Wheel Engineering, Inc. v. West Worldwide Services, Inc., Docket No. 16-35897, J. Clifton, for publication)

Le degré de la preuve en procédure civile fédérale. « Clear and convincing evidence » : les moyens de preuve présentés doivent rendre le fait à prouver « hautement probable ».

Monday, August 22, 2016

P. v. Grimes, S076339, on rehearing


Hearsay: Hearsay (declarations against interest): Evidence: Testimony: Abuse of discretion: De novo review: Holmes: Kennedy:

(…) As explained below, the trial court erred in excluding the testimony under Evidence Code section 1230, and the error, while harmless at the guilt phase of trial, requires reversal of the judgment of death.

Declarations against interest: Although hearsay statements are generally inadmissible under California law (Evid. Code, § 1200, subd. (b)), the rule has a number of exceptions. One such exception permits the admission of any statement that “when made, was so far contrary to the declarant’s pecuniary or proprietary interest, or so far subjected him to the risk of civil or criminal liability, or so far tended to render invalid a claim by him against another, or created such a risk of making him an object of hatred, ridicule, or social disgrace in the community, that a reasonable man in his position would not have made the statement unless he believed it to be true.” (Evid. Code, § 1230.) As applied to statements against the declarant’s penal interest, in particular, the rationale underlying the exception is that “a person’s interest against being criminally implicated gives reasonable assurance of the veracity of his statement against that interest,” thereby mitigating the dangers usually associated with the admission of out-of-court statements. (People v. Spriggs (1964) 60 Cal.2d 868, 874.)

Fn. 3: In its traditional form, the against-interest exception permitted the admission of out-of-court statements against the declarant’s pecuniary or proprietary interest, but not statements against penal interest. (See Donnelly v. United States (1913) 228 U.S. 243; People v. Spriggs, supra, 60 Cal.2d at p. 870.) This limitation — often recited, rarely explained — came under vigorous criticism. (See ibid.) Dean Wigmore, citing Justice Holmes’s dissent in Donnelly, forcefully advocated “discarding this barbarous doctrine, which would refuse to let an innocent accused vindicate himself” by producing the confession of an unavailable declarant. (Wigmore, Evidence (Chadbourn ed. 1974) § 1477, p. 360; see Donnelly, at pp. 277-278 (dis. opn. of Holmes, J.) [observing that the confession of the unavailable declarant in that case “would have a very strong tendency to make anyone outside of a court of justice believe that Donnelly did not commit the crime,” since “no other statement is so much against interest as a confession of murder”].) Siding with the critics, this court in Spriggs extended the against-interest exception to encompass statements against penal interest. (Spriggs, supra, 60 Cal.2d at p. 870.) When the Legislature later enacted  Evidence Code section 1230, it codified this understanding of the against-interest exception. (See Assem. Com. on Judiciary, com. on Assem. Bill No. 3212 (1965 Reg. Sess.) reprinted at 29B pt. 4 West’s Ann. Evid. Code foll. § 1230, p. 289 [Evidence Code section 1230 “codifies the hearsay exception for declarations against interest as that exception has been developed by the California courts”].) 

To demonstrate that an out-of-court declaration is admissible as a declaration against interest, “the proponent of such evidence must show that the declarant is unavailable, that the declaration was against the declarant’s penal interest when made and that the declaration was sufficiently reliable to warrant admission despite its hearsay character.” (People v. Duarte (2000) 24 Cal.4th 603, 610-611 (Duarte).) “In determining whether a statement is truly against interest within the meaning of Evidence Code section 1230, and hence is sufficiently trustworthy to be admissible, the court may take into account not just the words but the circumstances under which they were uttered, the possible motivation of the declarant, and the declarant’s relationship to the defendant.” (People v. Frierson (1991) 53 Cal.3d 730, 745.)

We review a trial court’s decision whether a statement is admissible under Evidence Code section 1230 for abuse of discretion. (People v. Lawley (2002) 27 Cal.4th 102, 153, citing People v. Gordon (1990) 50 Cal.3d 1223, 1250-1253 (Gordon).) Whether a trial court has correctly construed Evidence Code section 1230 is, however, a question of law that we review de novo. (See Gordon at p. 1251 [while the application of the against-interest exception “to the peculiar facts of the individual case” is reviewed for abuse of discretion, “we review the specific determinations underlying the court’s ruling under the standards appropriate thereto”]; People v. Louis (1986) 42 Cal.3d 969, 985 [conclusions of law are subject to de novo review].)

The trial court: ((…) Morris was arrested on October 21, 1995, three days after the crime, and killed himself in his jail cell the next afternoon). As the trial court in this case correctly held, the portions of Morris’s statements admitting to stabbing Bone were admissible under Evidence Code section 1230 because a reasonable person in Morris’s position would have believed that these admissions would subject him to criminal liability. Defendant’s challenge concerns the portions of Morris’s statements indicating that (1) defendant did not participate in the killing, and (2) defendant reacted with surprise when Morris killed Bone. In excluding these portions of the statements, the trial court reasoned that “if somebody is confessing to a murder and to personally being the one who stabbed someone, . . . it does not in any way significantly enhance the personal detriment to the confessor if he says nobody else had any part in it. . . . The fact that the others did or did not assist him isn’t going to diminish his exposure, his public ridicule, et cetera.”

The California Supreme Court: The trial court’s ruling reflects a misunderstanding of the law governing the admission of statements against interest.

(The Leach rule: (People v. Leach (1975) 15 Cal.3d 419, 441 (Leach))).

(…) Concurring in the judgment, Justice Kennedy noted that this approach raises questions as applied to collateral statements that exculpate, rather than inculpate, the defendant. Justice Kennedy gave as an example a statement in which a declarant said, “I robbed the store alone,‟ but a criminal defendant on trial for robbery was permitted to introduce “only the portion of the statement in which the declarant said „I robbed the store.‟ ” (Williamson, supra, 512 U.S. at p. 617 (conc. opn. of Kennedy, J.).) Such a result, Justice Kennedy opined, “seems extraordinary.” (Ibid.) The Williamson majority did not directly respond to Justice Kennedy on this point, since no such issue was raised in the case. But the majority did make clear that the proper application of the rule depends on context. The majority explained that “the question under the against-interest exception is always whether . . . „. . . a reasonable person in the declarant’s position would not have made the statement unless believing it to be true,‟ and this question can only be answered in light of all the surrounding circumstances.” (Id. at pp. 603-604.)

The court rejected the government’s argument that the rule announced in Williamson “means that the trial judge must always parse the statement and let in only the inculpatory part.” (Ibid.) Rather, “it means that the statement must be examined in context, to see whether as a matter of common sense the portion at issue was against interest and would not have been made by a reasonable person unless he believed it to be true.” (Ibid.) “As a matter of common sense,” the court explained, this is less likely to be true when the statement takes the form  “I did it, but X is guiltier than I am,” than when the statement is “I did it alone, not with X.” That is because the part of the statement touching on X’s participation is an attempt to avoid responsibility or curry favor in the former, but to accept undiluted responsibility in the latter. (Ibid.; see also U.S. v. Lopez (10th Cir. 1985) 777 F.2d 543, 554 [trial court erred in excluding hearsay statements of a passenger in a vehicle that he alone had placed cocaine into the vehicle and that the defendant was not aware of the drugs prior to transporting them].)

In short, the nature and purpose of the against-interest exception does not require courts to sever and excise any and all portions of an otherwise inculpatory statement that do not “further incriminate” the declarant. Ultimately, courts must consider each statement in context in order to answer the ultimate question under Evidence Code section 1230: Whether the statement, even if not independently inculpatory of the declarant, is nevertheless against the declarant’s interest, such that “a reasonable man in the declarant’s position would not have made the statement unless he believed it to be true.” As the court recognized in Paguio, such a statement is more likely to satisfy the against-interest exception when the declarant accepts responsibility and denies or diminishes others’ responsibility, as in the example “I robbed the store alone,” as opposed to attempting to assign greater blame to others, as in the example, “I did it, but X is guiltier than I am.” (Paguio, supra, 114 F.3d at p. 934.) Of course, not all such statements are admissible; sometimes a declarant who makes an inculpatory statement may have a substantial incentive to exculpate others. A member of a criminal street gang, for example, may choose to take the fall for fellow gang members by making a confession that exculpates them. A trial court in that situation may reasonably conclude that the declarant’s incentive to protect his friends renders the exculpatory portions of the statement inadmissible. (See Duarte, supra, 24 Cal.4th at p. 611 [to be admissible under Evid. Code § 1230, a declaration must be shown to be “sufficiently reliable to warrant admission despite its hearsay character”].)

When a “third person talks to a friend or acquaintance in a purely private setting and implicates himself in the charged crime, while saying expressly that defendant was not involved,” the entire statement is admissible “when there is a close logical and narrative connection between the part of the statement implicating the speaker and the part referring to the defendant.” (Mueller & Kirkpatrick, Federal Evidence (4th ed. 2013) § 8:131, p. 198.) That was the case here. 

Secondary sources: Mueller & Kirkpatrick, Federal Evidence (4th ed. 2013) § 8:131, p. 198 ; Wigmore, Evidence (Chadbourn ed. 1974) § 1477, p. 360.


(Cal. S.C., August 22, 2016, P. v. Grimes, S076339, on rehearing).


Précisions au sujet d’une des exceptions à la règle « Hearsay » : les déclarations contre les intérêts (ici pénaux) du déclarant : pouvoir d’examen de la Cour Suprême de Californie :

La règle générale est que les déclarations constitutives de « Hearsay » ne sont pas admissibles selon le Code des preuves de Californie (Evid. Code, § 1200, subd. (b)). Dite règle connaît de nombreuses exceptions. L’une des exceptions permet à la cour d’accepter comme moyen de preuve une déclaration qui, lors de son expression, était tellement contraire aux intérêts du déclarant, ou qu’elle l’assujettissait au risque d’une responsabilité civile ou pénale, ou qu’elle risquait d’invalider une prétention qu’il détenait contre un tiers, ou qu’elle créait le risque de faire de lui un objet de haine, de ridicule ou de disgrâce sociale, qu’un homme raisonnable dans sa position se serait abstenu de déclarer, à moins de tenir la déclaration comme conforme à la vérité (Evid. Code, § 1230). S’agissant des déclarations contre les intérêts pénaux du déclarant, la ratio de l’exception est que l’intérêt d’une personne à ne pas être poursuivie pénalement donne à la déclaration une assurance de vérité. Le danger habituellement associé à l’admission d’une déclaration hors audience s’en trouve ainsi écarté.

La note en bas de page 3 rappelle l’historique de l’exception. Dans sa forme traditionnelle, l’exception contre les intérêts permettait l’admission d’une déclaration hors audience contre les intérêts économiques du déclarant, mais pas contre ses intérêts pénaux. Cette limitation, souvent appliquée mais rarement expliquée, a été vigoureusement critiquée, notamment par Holmes, qui a appelé à rejeter cette doctrine barbare, qui empêchait un innocent prévenu de se défendre en produisant l’aveu d’un déclarant qui ne pouvait plus comparaître en justice. La Cour Suprême de Californie s’est rangée à cette critique en étendant l’exception dans sa jurisprudence Spriggs, de sorte à inclure les déclarations contre les intérêts pénaux. Le Législateur californien en a fait de même en promulguant ensuite la Section 1230 du Code des preuves.

Pour démontrer qu’une déclaration hors audience est admissible en tant que déclaration contre les intérêts, celui qui entend faire administrer la preuve doit établir que le déclarant ne peut pas comparaître, que les propos étaient contraires à l’intérêt pénal de l’auteur au moment où ils ont été exprimés, et que la déclaration est suffisamment digne de confiance pour mériter son admission en tant que preuve, en dépit de sa nature de « Hearsay ».

Pour déterminer si une déclaration est véritablement contre les intérêts de son auteur et si elle est suffisamment digne de confiance pour être admise comme preuve, la cour peut considérer certes les mots prononcés mais aussi les circonstances entourant la déclaration, la motivation possible du déclarant, et les relations entre déclarant et prévenu.

La Cour revoit la décision de première instance s’agissant de l’admissibilité d’une déclaration au sens de la Section 1230 du Code des preuves sous l’angle de l’abus de discrétion. Mais déterminer si la cour de première instance a correctement interprété la section 1230 du Code des preuves est une question de droit qui est revue de novo (les questions de droit sont revues de novo).

Le Jugement de première instance : M. a été arrêté le 21 octobre 1995, soit trois jours après le crime, et s’est suicidé en prison l’après-midi suivant. De manière correcte, la cour a jugé que la partie des déclarations de M. dans laquelle il avait admis avoir poignardé B. est admissible au sens de la Section 1230 du fait qu’une personne raisonnable dans la position de M. aurait pensé que ces déclarations impliqueraient des conséquences pénales pour elle-même. Le litige porte sur la question de savoir si une autre partie des déclarations de M. est ou non admissible, soit celle où il indiquait que le prévenu n’avait pas participé à l’homicide et que le prévenu avait réagi avec surprise quand M. avait tué B. la cour de première instance a exclu cette autre partie des déclarations, raisonnant que si quelqu’un confesse la commission d’un homicide et avoir été l’auteur du coup de poignard, ajouter que « personne d’autre n’est impliqué dans la commission de l’homicide » n’augmente pas le détriment que subit le déclarant du fait de ses déclarations.

La Cour Suprême de Californie juge en l’espèce que les considérants qui précèdent reflètent une incompréhension des règles en matière d’admission de déclarations contraires à l’intérêt de l’auteur.

Dans une décision Williamson rendue par la Cour Suprême fédérale, le Juge Kennedy a observé dans une opinion concurrente que la question des déclarations collatérales qui exculpent plutôt qu’inculpent le prévenu méritait d’être posée. Le Juge Kennedy a donné l’exemple d’une déclaration par laquelle son auteur affirme : « J’ai dévalisé le magasin tout seul ». A son procès, le prévenu n’est autorisé qu’à introduire la partie suivante de la déclaration : « J’ai dévalisé le magasin ». Un tel résultat, soutient le Juge Kennedy, « semble extraordinaire ». L’opinion de la majorité ne s’est pas directement prononcée à ce niveau, mais a clairement exprimé que la question litigieuse dépendait du contexte, comme indiqué précédemment. La question que sous-tend l’exception de la déclaration contre les intérêts est toujours celle de savoir si une personne raisonnable, dans la position du déclarant, ne se serait pas exprimée si elle n’avait pas tenu ses propos pour vrai. Il ne peut être répondu à cette question qu’à la lumière de toutes les circonstances entourant la déclaration.

En résumé, la règle énoncée par la décision Williamson signifie que la déclaration doit être examinée dans son contexte, pour établir si, selon le sens commun, la partie litigieuse de la déclaration était contraire aux intérêts du déclarant et n’aurait pas été exprimée par une personne raisonnable sauf à la croire conforme à la vérité. A la lumière du sens commun, il faut distinguer les deux exemples de déclarations qui suivent : « Je l’ai fait, mais X est davantage coupable que moi » d’une part, « Je l’ai fait tout seul, pas avec X ». La partie de la déclaration relative à la participation de X constitue une tentative d’éviter une responsabilité dans le premier des deux exemples, et une acceptation de responsabilité non diluée dans le second.

Il faut bien entendu encore être attentif au fait que parfois un déclarant peut tenir des propos contraires à ses intérêts dans le but d’exculper un tiers. Par exemple, un membre d’un gang de rue criminel peut faire un aveu dans le seul but de protéger d’autres membres du gang. Dans une situation de ce type, une cour pénale de première instance peut raisonnablement conclure que la motivation du déclarant à protéger ses amis rend la déclaration inadmissible. C’est qu’en effet, pour être admissible au sens de la Section 1230, une déclaration doit être suffisamment digne de confiance pour mériter d’être administrée en tant que preuve, malgré sa nature de « Hearsay ».

Quand un tiers parle à un ami ou à une connaissance d’une manière purement privée, en s’impliquant dans la commission du crime poursuivi, tout en indiquant expressément que le prévenu n’a pas pris part à l’infraction, la déclaration est admissible dans son entier lorsqu’existe une relation logique et narrative étroite entre la partie de la déclaration qui implique son auteur et la partie de la déclaration qui se rapporte au prévenu.






Wednesday, December 11, 2013

Kansas v. Cheever



Evidence: admission of rebuttal testimony: in Buchanan, the prosecution presented evidence from a court­ ordered evaluation to rebut the defendant’s affirmative defense of ex­treme emotional disturbance. This Court concluded that this rebut­tal testimony did not offend the Fifth Amendment (Fifth Amendment proscription against compelling an accused to testify against himself), holding that when a defense expert who has examined the defendant testifies that the defendant lacked the requisite mental state to commit an offense, the prosecution may present psychiatric evidence in rebuttal. Buchan­an’s reasoning was not limited to the circumstance that the evalua­tion was requested jointly by the defense and the government. Nor did the case turn on whether state law referred to extreme emotional disturbance as an affirmative defense.
The admission of rebuttal testimony under the rule of Buchan­an harmonizes with the principle that when a defendant chooses to testify in a criminal case, the Fifth Amendment does not allow him to refuse to answer related questions on cross-examination. See Fitz­patrick v. United States, 178 U. S. 304, 315.
Here, the prosecution elicited testimony from its expert only after Cheever offered expert testimony about his inability to form the requisite mens rea (mens rea, mental capacity to commit the crime, or ability to premeditate). Exclud­ing this testimony would have undermined Buchanan and the core truth-seeking function of trial (U.S.S.Ct., 11.12.2013, Kansas v. Cheever, Docket 12-609, J. Sotomayor, unanimous).

Moyens de preuves admis dans le procès pénal : lorsque le prévenu allègue son état mental comme moyen de défense, l’accusation est admise à produire un rapport psychiatrique pour contrer l’allégation. Le prévenu ne peut se baser sur le Cinquième Amendement pour éviter dite production par l’accusation (le Cinquième Amendement interdit de contraindre un accusé de témoigner contre lui-même). Il est sans importance que le rapport déposé par l’accusation ait été requis ou non conjointement par la défense et l’accusation. Ce principe est en harmonie avec le principe selon lequel lorsque le prévenu choisit de témoigner dans le procès pénal, le Cinquième Amendement ne lui permet pas de refuser de répondre à des questions de l’accusation, questions reliées à son propre témoignage. Exclure le rapport présenté par l’accusation dans ces circonstances reviendrait à porter préjudice à la recherche de la vérité, fonction fondamentale du procès pénal de première instance.