Showing posts with label Writ of mandate. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Writ of mandate. Show all posts

Thursday, February 20, 2025

California Court of Appeal, Ng v. Super. Ct., Docket G064257M


Medical Malpractice

 

Survival Claim

 

Wrongful Death Claim

 

Personal Injury

 

Noneconomic Damages

 

Motion to Strike

 

Motion for Leave to Amend

 

Writ of Prohibition

 

Writ of Mandate

 

California Law

 

 

 

In this case for medical malpractice and wrongful death, plaintiff Joely Ng (Ng) and defendant Los Alamitos Medical Center, Inc. (the Medical Center), dispute whether recent amendments to the cap on noneconomic damages (Civ. Code, § 3333.2) under the Medical Injury Compensation Reform Act of 1975 (MICRA) and to the availability of noneconomic damages in survival actions (Code Civ. Proc., § 377.34) permit Ng to recover noneconomic damages under one or two MICRA caps. In this petition, Ng seeks a writ of prohibition or mandate directing respondent court to vacate its May 24, 2024, order granting the Medical Center’s motion to strike portions of Ng’s complaint that allege her entitlement to seek two MICRA caps. We conclude Ng’s claims are subject to two separate MICRA caps. Accordingly, we grant the petition and direct the court to vacate its order and enter a new and different order denying the motion.

 

 

(…) The complaint alleges two causes of action against all defendants: (1) wrongful death, in Ng’s individual capacity; and (2) medical malpractice, in Ng’s capacity as successor in interest to the Decedent (the survival claim). In addition to economic damages, Ng sought noneconomic damages for each claim: (1) for the wrongful death claim, damages for the loss of the Decedent’s love, companionship, comfort, care, assistance, protection, affection, society, and moral support, up to the cap allowed in Civil Code section 3333.2; and (2) for the survival claim, damages for the Decedent’s pre-death pain and suffering, up to the cap allowed in Code of Civil Procedure section 377.34, subdivision (b).

 

 

Objecting to Ng’s request for two separate caps for noneconomic damages, the Medical Center filed a motion to strike the following language from the complaint (at paragraph 20 and repeated verbatim in the prayer): “This is separate, apart, and in addition to the general damages sought by Kenneth Ng’s widow in the first cause of action. (See Keys v. Alta Bates Summit Medical Center (2015) 235 Cal.App.4th 484, 488; Atkins v. Strayhorn (1990) 223 Cal.App.3d 1380.)” Although the Medical Center agrees that Ng is entitled to seek noneconomic damages for both claims, it contends those damages are subject to one MICRA cap. In other words, the Medical Center interprets the relevant statutes as prohibiting Ng from recovering two separate noneconomic damages caps, one for each claim.

 

 

Respondent court granted the motion. The court reasoned that because “the wrongful death claim is not separate and distinct from a medical negligence claim, it cannot be . . . subject to a separate MICRA cap.” The court, however, “noted that while the MICRA cap affects the final judgment, it does not have any impact on the jury’s verdict itself or the amount determined to be plaintiff’s actual noneconomic losses.” Although the court denied leave to amend, it did so “without prejudice to plaintiff bringing a motion for leave to amend to assert the two claims as separate and distinct for purposes of the MICRA cap, should plaintiff discover and allege facts that support a finding the wrongful death claim is separate and distinct from the medical negligence claim.”

 

 

A trial court may “strike out any irrelevant, false, or improper matter inserted in any pleading” and “all or any part of any pleading not drawn or filed in conformity with the laws of this state, a court rule, or an order of the court.” (§ 436, subds. (a), (b).) Generally, we review a ruling on a motion to strike for abuse of discretion. (Cal-Western Business Services, Inc. v. Corning Capital Group (2013) 221 Cal.App.4th 304, 309.) But where, as here, the ruling concerns “the proper interpretation of a statute, and its application to undisputed facts,” it is a question of law which we review de novo. (Ibid.)

 

 

At issue here is whether the recent amendment to Code of Civil Procedure section 377.34, which authorizes a decedent’s personal representative or successor in interest to recover noneconomic damages, means a plaintiff can seek two MICRA cap awards (one for himself or herself and one for the decedent) under Civil Code section 3333.2. We conclude it does. Because a wrongful death claim and a survival claim—even when premised on the same alleged medical malpractice—are separate and distinct claims, a plaintiff suing for both claims can seek to recover two MICRA caps.

 

 

Ng’s action, filed in 2023, is subject to the recent amendments to these statutes. As relevant here, effective January 1, 2022, subdivision (b) was added to section 377.34 of the Code of Civil Procedure to allow for the recovery of damages for a decedent’s “pain, suffering, or disfigurement” in survival actions “filed on or after January 1, 2022, and before January 1, 2026.” (Stats. 2021, ch. 448, § 1.) It also provided that “nothing in this section alters Section 3333.2 of the Civil Code.” (Code Civ. Proc., § 377.34, subd. (e).) Effective January 1, 2023, Civil Code section 3333.2 was amended to, among other things, increase the $250,000 cap on noneconomic damages. (Id., § 3333.2, subds. (a)–(c) [$350,000 in medical malpractice cases not involving wrongful death, $500,000 in wrongful death cases, with annual increases]; Stats. 2022, ch. 17, § 3.) These amendments raised the question of whether a survival claim was subject to a separate MICRA cap.

 

 

A survival claim (§ 377.30) is “a separate and distinct cause of action which belonged to the decedent before death but, by statute, survives that event. [Citation.] The survival statutes do not create a cause of action. Rather, ‘they merely prevent the abatement of the cause of action of the injured person, and provide for its enforcement by or against the personal representative of the deceased.’” (Quiroz v. Seventh Ave. Center (2006) 140 Cal.App.4th 1256, 1264 (Quiroz).) In contrast, a wrongful death claim (§ 377.60) compensates the heirs of the decedent “for the loss of companionship and for other losses suffered as a result of the decedent’s death.” (Quiroz, supra, 140 Cal.App.4th at p. 1263.) Such “damages . . . are in the nature of compensation for personal injury to the heir” and “include (1) the loss of the decedent’s financial support, services, training and advice, and (2) the pecuniary value of the decedent’s society and companionship.” (Id. at p. 1264.) “Unlike some jurisdictions wherein wrongful death actions are derivative,” California’s wrongful death statute “‘creates a new cause of action in favor of the heirs as beneficiaries, based upon their own independent pecuniary injury suffered by loss of a relative, and distinct from any the deceased might have maintained had he survived.’” (Horwich v. Superior Court (1999) 21 Cal.4th 272, 283.)

 

 

Crucially, a wrongful death claim may not include any damages recoverable as part of a survival claim, and the claims may be tried separately. (§ 377.61; Wilson v. John Crane, Inc. (2000) 81 Cal.App.4th 847, 861.) For these reasons, we conclude respondent court erred in finding the claims were “not separate and distinct” and subject to one MICRA cap.

 

 

DISPOSITION

The petition is granted. Let a peremptory writ of mandate issue, directing the trial court to vacate its May 24, 2024, order granting the Medical Center’s motion to strike and to issue a new and different order denying the motion. Petitioner to recover costs of this proceeding. (Cal. Rules of Court, rule 8.493(a)(1)(A).)

 

 

 

 

 

(California Court of Appeal, Feb 20, 2025, Ng v. Super. Ct., Docket G064257M, Certified for Publication)

Friday, December 22, 2017

Lippman v. City of Oakland, A141865


Writ of mandate:



"A traditional writ of mandate under Code of Civil Procedure section 1085 is a method for compelling a public entity to perform a legal and usually ministerial duty." (American Federation of State, County & Municipal Employees v. Metropolitan Water District (2005) 126 Cal.App.4th 247, 261.)
“In reviewing a trial court’s judgment on a petition for writ of ordinary mandate, . . . we exercise our independent judgment on legal issues, such as the interpretation of statutory . . . provisions.” (Kreeft v. City of Oakland (1998) 68 Cal.App.4th 46, 53.)

In interpreting a statute, “we begin as always with the fundamental premise that the objective of statutory interpretation is to ascertain and effectuate legislative intent."  To discover that intent we first look to the words of the statute, giving them their usual and ordinary meaning. Where the words of the statute are clear, we may not add to or alter them to accomplish a purpose that does not appear on the face of the statute or from its legislative history. (Trope v. Katz (1995) 11 Cal.4th 274, 280.)



(Cal. Court of Appeal, First Appellate District, Division Four, filed Dec. 22, 2017, Cert. for Pub. Jan. 22, 2018, Lippman v. City of Oakland, A141865).



La base légale du writ of mandate.




Thursday, June 29, 2017

K.R. v. Super. Ct., S231709


Plea agreements: juvenile proceedings: waiver: mandate:



Plea negotiations and agreements are an accepted and integral component of the criminal justice system and essential to the expeditious and fair administration of our courts. Plea agreements benefit that system by promoting speed, economy, and the finality of judgments. (People v. Segura (2008) 44 Cal.4th 921, 929; see People v. Panizzon (1996) 13 Cal.4th 68, 79–80.) The same is true in proceedings involving juvenile offenders. Plea bargaining is a common feature in juvenile delinquency proceedings, just as it is in criminal proceedings in adult court. Similar principles apply in both settings. (In re Ricardo C. (2013) 220 Cal.App.4th 688, 698; accord, In re Jermaine B. (1999) 69 Cal.App.4th 634, 639 [plea bargaining is an accepted practice in juvenile delinquency proceedings].)

A plea agreement is a tripartite agreement which requires the consent of the defendant, the People and the court. Acceptance of the agreement binds the court and the parties to the agreement. (People v. Feyrer (2010) 48 Cal.4th 426, 436–437.) Although a plea agreement does not divest the court of its inherent sentencing discretion, a judge who has accepted a plea bargain is bound to impose a sentence within the limits of that bargain. (People v. Segura, supra, 44 Cal.4th at p. 931.) Should the court consider the plea bargain to be unacceptable, its remedy is to reject it, not to violate it, directly or indirectly. (See People v. Blount (2009) 175 Cal.App.4th 992, 997.)

A negotiated plea agreement is a form of contract and is interpreted according to general contract principles. (Doe v. Harris (2013) 57 Cal.4th 64, 69.) When enforcing such an agreement, courts will apply general contract principles to give effect to the mutual intention of the parties. (People v. Shelton (2006) 37 Cal.4th 759, 767.) Not all contract terms, however, are expressly stated in a contract. Experience and practice can, in some circumstances, lead courts to recognize the incorporation of implied terms to a contractual agreement. (Retired Employees Assn. of Orange County, Inc. v. County of Orange (2011) 52 Cal.4th 1171, 1178–1179.)

One such implied term of a plea agreement was recognized in People v. Harvey (1979) 25 Cal.3d 754. In Harvey, the defendant complained the trial court improperly sentenced him to the upper term for robbery by relying on the facts underlying a dismissed count to establish a circumstance in aggravation. We agreed. It would be improper and unfair to permit the sentencing court to consider any of the facts underlying the dismissed count three for purposes of aggravating or enhancing defendant‘s sentence. Count three was dismissed in consideration of defendant‘s agreement to plead guilty to counts one and two. Implicit in such a plea bargain, we think, is the understanding (in the absence of any contrary agreement) that defendant will suffer no adverse sentencing consequences by reason of the facts underlying, and solely pertaining to, the dismissed count. (Id., at p. 758.)

We recognized a different implied term for all plea agreements in Arbuckle, 22 Cal.3d 749, holding that a defendant‘s negotiated plea agreement necessarily included an implied term that the same judge who accepted his plea would preside at sentencing (…) Arbuckle reversed and remanded, explaining that he should be sentenced by the same judge who accepted his plea, or if internal court administrative practices render that impossible, then in the alternative defendant should be permitted to withdraw his plea. (Id. at p. 757.) We later applied the Arbuckle rule to a plea before a commissioner in juvenile court, where the parties impliedly stipulated that the judicial officer could act as a temporary judge. (Mark L., 34 Cal.3d 171.) The rule has since been extended to juvenile proceedings generally. (See In re James H. (1985) 165 Cal.App.3d 911, 917; In re Ray O. (1979) 97 Cal.App.3d 136, 139–140 [whenever a juvenile enters a plea bargain before a judge he has the right to be sentenced by that same judge].)

Even after Arbuckle, however, parties to a plea agreement—i.e., the pleading defendant and the prosecuting attorney—remained free to chart a different course by making explicit on the record that the defendant did not care if the same judge pronounced sentence. To do so, the prosecutor need only secure, at the time the plea is accepted, what has come to be known as an Arbuckle waiver. (See People v. Martinez (2005) 127 Cal.App.4th 1156, 1160).

(…) In sum, because of the plain meaning of the Arbuckle opinion, the contemporaneous understanding of that opinion by the Arbuckle dissenters, the understanding by the intermediate appellate courts and legal commentators in the years immediately following the case, this court‘s citation of Arbuckle with approval in both Mark L., 34 Cal.3d 171, and Rodriguez, 1 Cal.5th 676, and Mark L.‘s failure to question or undermine the basic reasoning of Arbuckle, we reject the appellate court‘s position below that it has been settled law for more than 25 years that an Arbuckle right to be sentenced by the judge who accepted a negotiated plea arises not as a matter of general principle, but only when the specific facts of a given case show that the plea was given in expectation of and in reliance upon sentence being imposed by the same judge. Instead, we adhere to the plain and original understanding of Arbuckle that in every plea in both adult and juvenile court, an implied term is that the judge who accepts the plea will be the judge who pronounces sentence. Should the People wish to allow a different judge to preside at sentencing (or, in juvenile cases, disposition), they should seek to obtain a waiver from the pleading defendant or juvenile.

(…) As a rule, trial courts accepting a plea always retain discretion over sentencing. Should the court later decide not to impose the negotiated sentence, the court can withdraw its prior approval of the bargain and allow the pleading defendant (or juvenile) to withdraw his or her plea.

(…) Conclusion: The judgment of the Court of Appeal denying K.R.‘s petition for writ of mandate is reversed, and the cause remanded with directions to grant the petition.



Secondary sources: Erwin et al., California Criminal Defense Practice (2016) Arraignment and Pleas, chapter 42.44[1], pages 42-154.8(5) to 42-154.9; California Criminal Law: Procedure and Practice (Cont. Ed. Bar 2015) Pronouncing Judgment, section 35.11, page 1028; Levenson, Cal. Criminal Procedure (2002–2003) Plea Bargaining, ¶ 14:17, p. 598; Witkin, Cal. Criminal Procedure (1985 Supp.) Proceedings Before Trial, § 265-O, p. 335 quoting Arbuckle; Seiser & Kumli, Cal. Juvenile Courts Practice and Procedure (1997) Delinquency, § 3.92[1], p. 3–94.



(Cal.S.C., June 29, 2017, K.R. v. Super. Ct., S231709, Diss. Op. by C.J. Cantil-Sakauye, J. Chin and J. Corrigan concur. with the dissent).



Plea agreement en droit pénal des adultes et des mineurs : les mêmes principes s'appliquent dans les deux cas.

Le plea agreement est un accord tripartite, qui lie le prévenu, l'accusation et le tribunal. Si un tel accord est soumis au tribunal et que celui-ci le trouve inacceptable, il devra le rejeter. Il ne pourra s'en distancer s'il l'a accepté (cf. toutefois ci-dessous in fine).

Le plea est négocié, il constitue une forme de contrat et il est interprété selon le droit général des contrats. Le cas échéant, le tribunal peut accepter l'incorporation de termes implicites dans l'accord.

La Cour a reconnu du contenu implicite dans le plea suivant : le prévenu avait plaidé coupable s'agissant des préventions une et deux. De la sorte, la prévention numéro trois avait été abandonnée. Le plea était ainsi entré en force. A la phase de fixation de la peine, le tribunal avait prononcé une aggravation de peine en se fondant sur des faits à la base de la seule prévention numéro trois. La Cour suprême, saisie, jugea que le plea contenait implicitement la notion selon laquelle le condamné ne souffrira nul préjudice des faits à la base de la seule prévention numéro trois (cf. People v. Harvey (1979) 25 Cal.3d 754).

La jurisprudence Arbuckle (22 Cal.3d 749) a en outre précisé que tous les plea agreements contenaient de manière implicite l'exigence que le juge qui a accepté le plea sera le juge qui présidera la phase de la procédure de fixation de la peine. Si les règles internes du tribunal ne permettent pas une telle organisation, l'accusé doit être autorisé à retirer son plea.

L'accusé peut renoncer à son droit à ce que le juge du plea soit le juge du prononcé de la peine. Dite renonciation doit être explicite et contemporaine au plea (Arbuckle waiver).

La présente espèce confirme que tous les plea, en droit pénal des adultes comme des mineurs, contiennent une clause implicite prévoyant l'identité du juge du plea et du juge du prononcé de la peine. Il est inexact de prétendre que cette clause n'est à retenir que si les faits de la cause démontrent que le plea a été conclu en considération de dite identité des deux juges.

Nonobstant ce qui précède, la cour pénale qui accepte un plea conserve ultérieurement son pouvoir d'appréciation de la peine à prononcer. Si la cour décide finalement de ne pas imposer la peine convenue, la cour peut retirer son approbation et permettre à l'accusé de retirer son plea.


Thursday, March 2, 2017

City of San Jose v. Super. Ct., S218066


Privacy: FOIA: Data: Transparency: Declaratory relief: Mandamus: Writ of mandate: Interpretation of a statute (California): Personal account (v. gov. account):

When a city employee uses a personal account to communicate about the conduct of public business, the writings may be subject to disclosure under the California Public Records Act (CPRA or Act) (Government Code section 6250 et seq.).

(CPRA was modeled on the federal Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (5 U.S.C. § 552).  (San Gabriel Tribune v. Superior Court (1983) 143 Cal.App.3d 762, 772.)).

(Article IV establishes the Legislature, and article VI establishes the state’s judiciary.  (Cal. Const., arts. IV, VI.)  These branches of government are thus generally exempt from CPRA.  (See Sander v. State Bar of California, 58 Cal.4th at p. 318; Copley Press, Inc. v. Superior Court (1992) 6 Cal.App.4th 106, 111.)).

(Contrary to the City’s view, it seems more plausible that the reference to “every state . . . officer” in the state agency definition (§ 6252, subd. (f)) was meant to extend CPRA obligations to elected state officers, such as the Governor, Treasurer, or Secretary of State, who are not part of a collective governmental body nor generally considered employees of a state agency.)


(…) The City disclosed communications made using City telephone numbers and email accounts but did not disclose communications made using the individuals’ personal accounts.

Smith sued for declaratory relief, arguing CPRA’s definition of “public records” encompasses all communications about official business, regardless of how they are created, communicated, or stored.  The City responded that messages communicated through personal accounts are not public records because they are not within the public entity’s custody or control.  The trial court granted summary judgment for Smith and ordered disclosure, but the Court of Appeal issued a writ of mandate.

This case concerns how laws, originally designed to cover paper documents, apply to evolving methods of electronic communication.  It requires recognition that, in today’s environment, not all employment-related activity occurs during a conventional workday, or in an employer-maintained workplace.

Enacted in 1968, CPRA declares that “access to information concerning the conduct of the people’s business is a fundamental and necessary right of every person in this state.”  (§ 6250.)  In 2004, voters made this principle part of our Constitution.  A provision added by Proposition 59 states:  “The people have the right of access to information concerning the conduct of the people’s business, and, therefore, . . . the writings of public officials and agencies shall be open to public scrutiny.”  (Cal. Const., art. I, § 3, subd. (b)(1).) 

CPRA and the Constitution strike a careful balance between public access and personal privacy.  This case concerns how that balance is served when documents concerning official business are created or stored outside the workplace.  The issue is a narrow one:  Are writings concerning the conduct of public business beyond CPRA’s reach merely because they were sent or received using a nongovernmental account?  Considering the statute’s language and the important policy interests it serves, the answer is no.  Employees’ communications about official agency business may be subject to CPRA regardless of the type of account used in their preparation or transmission.

“When we interpret a statute, ‘our fundamental task . . . is to determine the Legislature’s intent so as to effectuate the law’s purpose.  We first examine the statutory language, giving it a plain and commonsense meaning.  We do not examine that language in isolation, but in the context of the statutory framework as a whole in order to determine its scope and purpose and to harmonize the various parts of the enactment.  If the language is clear, courts must generally follow its plain meaning unless a literal interpretation would result in absurd consequences the Legislature did not intend.  If the statutory language permits more than one reasonable interpretation, courts may consider other aids, such as the statute’s purpose, legislative history, and public policy.’ ‘Furthermore, we consider portions of a statute in the context of the entire statute and the statutory scheme of which it is a part, giving significance to every word, phrase, sentence, and part of an act in pursuance of the legislative purpose.’ ”  (Sierra Club v. Superior Court (2013) 57 Cal.4th 157, 165-166.)

(…) We clarify, however, that to qualify as a public record under CPRA, at a minimum, a writing must relate in some substantive way to the conduct of the public’s business.  This standard, though broad, is not so elastic as to include every piece of information the public may find interesting.  Communications that are primarily personal, containing no more than incidental mentions of agency business, generally will not constitute public records.  For example, the public might be titillated to learn that not all agency workers enjoy the company of their colleagues, or hold them in high regard.  However, an employee’s electronic musings about a colleague’s personal shortcomings will often fall far short of being a “writing containing information relating to the conduct of the public’s business.”  (§ 6252, subd. (e).)

(…) Appellate courts have generally concluded records related to public business are subject to disclosure if they are in an agency’s actual or constructive possession.  (See, e.g., Board of Pilot Comrs. for the Bays of San Francisco, San Pablo and Suisun v. Superior Court (2013) 218 Cal.App.4th 577, 598; Consolidated Irrigation Dist. v. Superior Court (2012) 205 Cal.App.4th 697, 710 (Consolidated Irrigation).)  “An agency has constructive possession of records if it has the right to control the records, either directly or through another person.”  (Consolidated Irrigation, at p. 710.)  (…) A city had a CPRA duty to disclose a consultant’s field survey records because the city had a contractual ownership interest and right to possess this material.  (See Community Youth Athletic Center v. City of National City (2013) 220 Cal.App.4th 1385, 1426, 1428-1429 (Community Youth).)

(…) In construing FOIA, federal courts have remarked that an agency’s public records “do not lose their agency character just because the official who possesses them takes them out the door.”  (Competitive Enterprise Institute v. Office of Science and Technology Policy, 827 F.3d at p. 149.)  We likewise hold that documents otherwise meeting CPRA’s definition of “public records” do not lose this status because they are located in an employee’s personal account.  A writing retained by a public employee conducting agency business has been “retained by” the agency within the meaning of section 6252, subdivision (e), even if the writing is retained in the employee’s personal account.

(…) There is no indication the Legislature meant to allow public officials to shield communications about official business simply by directing them through personal accounts.  Such an expedient would gut the public’s presumptive right of access (Sander v. State Bar of California, 58 Cal.4th at p. 323), and the constitutional imperative to broadly construe this right (Cal. Const., art. I, § 3, subd. (b)(2)).

We are aware of no California law requiring that public officials or employees use only government accounts to conduct public business. 

It is no answer to say, as did the Court of Appeal, that we must presume public officials conduct official business in the public’s best interest.  The Constitution neither creates nor requires such an optimistic presumption.  Indeed, the rationale behind the Act is that it is for the public to make that determination, based on information to which it is entitled under the law.  Open access to government records is essential to verify that government officials are acting responsibly and held accountable to the public they serve.  (CBS, Inc. v. Block (1986) 42 Cal.3d 646, 651.)  “Such access permits checks against the arbitrary exercise of official power and secrecy in the political process.”  (Ibid.)  The whole purpose of CPRA is to ensure transparency in government activities.  If public officials could evade the law simply by clicking into a different email account, or communicating through a personal device, sensitive information could routinely evade public scrutiny.

Of course, public employees do not forfeit all rights to privacy by working for the government.  (Long Beach City Employees Assn. v. City of Long Beach (1986) 41 Cal.3d 937, 951.)  Even so, the City essentially argues that the contents of personal email and other messaging accounts should be categorically excluded from public review because these materials have traditionally been considered private.  However, compliance with CPRA is not necessarily inconsistent with the privacy rights of public employees.  Any personal information not related to the conduct of public business, or material falling under a statutory exemption, can be redacted from public records that are produced or presented for review.  (See § 6253, subd. (a).)

(…) Agencies can adopt policies that will reduce the likelihood of public records being held in employees’ private accounts.  “Agencies are in the best position to implement policies that fulfill their obligations” under public records laws “yet also preserve the privacy rights of their employees.”  (Nissen v. Pierce County, 357 P.3d at p. 58.)  For example, agencies might require that employees use or copy their government accounts for all communications touching on public business.  Federal agency employees must follow such procedures to ensure compliance with analogous FOIA requests.  (See 44 U.S.C. § 2911(a) [prohibiting use of personal electronic accounts for official business unless messages are copied or forwarded to an official account]; 36 C.F.R. § 1236.22(b) (2016) [requiring that agencies ensure official email messages in employees’ personal accounts are preserved in the agency’s recordkeeping system]; Landmark Legal Foundation v. Environmental Protection Agency (D.D.C. 2015) 82 F.Supp.3d 211, 225-226 [encouraging a policy that official emails be preserved in employees’ personal accounts as well].)


Secondary sources: Senat, Whose Business Is It:  Is Public Business Conducted on Officials’ Personal Electronic Devices Subject to State Open Records Laws? (2014) 19 Comm. L. & Pol’y 293, 322.


(Cal. S.C., March 2, 2017, City of San Jose v. Super. Ct., S218066).


Transparence de l'administration : droit de consulter des informations déposées sur des supports privés d'un employé public :

La question posée ici est de savoir si les communications d'un employé public, qui ont trait à son activité professionnelle mais qui sont déposées sur des supports électroniques privés, peuvent être divulguées selon la loi californienne sur les dossiers publics (CPRA, Government Code section 6250 et seq.).

(CPRA est structuré selon FOIA ; le législatif et l'ordre judiciaire sont de manière générale exemptés de CPRA ; CPRA s'applique aussi au personnel élu de l'état, comme le Gouverneur, le Trésorier et le Secrétaire d'état).

Au plan procédural, le requérant conclut à un "declaratory relief", soutenant que la définition des termes "dossiers publics" utilisés par CPRA comprend toutes les communications relatives à l'activité officielle, quelles que soient leurs créations, transmissions et conservations. La municipalité adverse argue que les messages communiqués par des canaux électroniques privés ne sont pas assimilables à des dossiers publics du fait qu'ils ne sont pas sous la garde ou le contrôle de l'entité publique. La cour de première instance a jugé sommairement en faveur du requérant et a ordonné la divulgation, mais la cour d'appel a rendu un "writ of mandate".

Cette affaire illustre comment des lois, se rapportant originellement à des documents papier, s'appliquent à l'évolution des méthodes de communications électroniques. Il est reconnu que dans l'environnement contemporain toutes les activités de nature professionnelle ne se produisent pas nécessairement pendant un jour de travail conventionnel. Elles n'ont pas non plus nécessairement lieu à la place de travail prévue par l'employeur.

CPRA a été promulgué en 1968, et dispose que l'accès à l'information relative à la conduite des affaires publiques est un droit aussi fondamental que nécessaire de chaque citoyen de l'état. En 2004, le souverain a ancré ce droit dans la Constitution (Cal. Const., art. I, § 3, subd. (b)(1).) 

La question posée en l'espèce est restreinte : des documents relatifs à la conduite des affaires publiques sont-ils hors de portée de CPRA du seul fait qu'ils sont envoyés depuis ou reçus par un compte privé ? CPRA et la Constitution de l'état ont mis en place un équilibre entre l'accès public et la protection des données. Considérant le texte de CPRA et les intérêts publics importants qu'il sert, la réponse à la question précitée est négative.

Comme toutes les lois au sens formel, CPRA s'interprète en recherchant l'intention du législateur, pour que la loi atteigne son but. Le texte de la loi est examiné en premier, en donnant aux mots leur sens ordinaire. Ce texte n'est pas examiné isolément, mais dans son contexte systématique, en vue de déterminer son étendue et ses objectifs. Si le langage utilisé est clair, les Tribunaux devront généralement s'y conformer, à moins que l'interprétation littérale n'aboutisse à des conséquences absurdes que le législateur n'avait pas prévues. Si le texte permet plus d'une interprétation raisonnable, les Tribunaux peuvent recourir à d'autres méthodes, telles l'interprétation téléologique, l'histoire législative, et la politique publique sous-jacente. Chaque mot et chaque phrase doivent avoir un sens.

Pour qualifier de dossier public au sens de CPRA, un document doit se rapporter à la conduite des affaires publiques. Ne remplit pas cette condition une communication personnelle qui ne contient que des mentions incidentes des affaires publiques.

De manière générale, les cours d'appel de l'état ont jugé que les dossiers liés aux affaires de l'administration sont à divulguer s'ils sont en possession physique ou constructive de dite administration. Une administration est titulaire de la possession constructive d'un dossier si elle dispose du droit de le contrôler, soit directement soit par un tiers. Par exemple, une municipalité a un devoir de divulguer un rapport d'aménagement établi du fait qu'elle dispose contractuellement d'un droit de propriété sur ce rapport, et qu'elle dispose du droit de le détenir.

En interprétant FOIA, les cours fédérales ont également jugé qu'un document détenu par un employé public dans le cadre de son activité professionnelle est un document retenu par l'administration, même si ce document est déposé sur un compte électronique privé.

Le législateur californien n'a jamais voulu permettre aux employés publics de protéger leurs communications au sujet des affaires publiques simplement en les déposant sur des ressources privées. Une telle volonté serait de nature à supprimer le droit d'accès du public et contreviendrait à la commande constitutionnelle d'interpréter largement ce droit (cf. Cal. Const., art. I, § 3, subd. (b)(2)).

Par ailleurs, le droit californien ne contient rien qui exigerait des employés publics de n'utiliser que des supports électroniques officiels dans l'exercice de leurs activités publiques.

On ne saurait présumer que les employés publics conforment leurs prestations professionnelles à l'intérêt public. La Constitution ne créé ni n'exige une telle présomption optimiste. Bien plutôt, CPRA laisse aux citoyens le soin de se déterminer s'agissant de la qualité du travail des administrations, détermination qui pourra se fonder sur les informations obtenues par le biais de CPRA. Un accès ouvert aux dossiers officiels est essentiel pour vérifier que le secteur administratif agit de manière responsable. Cet accès permet les vérifications prévenant l'exercice arbitraire du pouvoir et l'exercice de processus politiques secrets. Le but ultime de CPRA est de garantir la transparence dans les activités gouvernementales. Si les employés publics pouvaient échapper à la loi simplement en cliquant sur un compte email différent, ou en communiquant par une tablette personnelle, des informations sensibles exorbiteraient régulièrement hors du champ de la vigilance citoyenne.

Bien entendu, les employés publics ne renoncent pas à leur sphère privée en entrant au service de l'administration. Toutes informations personnelles sans lien avec la conduite des affaires publiques, et toutes pièces exemptées par la loi, peuvent être retirées du dossier remis à consultation.

Et enfin les administrations peuvent promulguer des directives réduisant la probabilité que des données publiques soient détenues sur des applications privées. Par exemple, l'administration peut exiger que ses employés utilisent ou copient leurs comptes publics s'agissant de tout ce qui concerne l'activité administrative (telle est déjà la pratique de l'administration fédérale, pour permettre de satisfaire les requêtes FOIA, cf. 44 U.S.C. § 2911(a), et 36 C.F.R. § 1236.22(b) (2016)).





Tuesday, February 3, 2015

Berkeley Hillside Preservation v. City of Berkeley, S201116



The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) (Pub. Resources Code, § 21000 et seq.) establishes a comprehensive scheme to provide long-term protection to the environment.  It prescribes review procedures a public agency must follow before approving or carrying out certain projects.  For policy reasons, the Legislature has expressly exempted several categories of projects from review under CEQA.  (See § 21080, subd. (b)(1) – (15).)  By statute, the Legislature has also directed the Secretary of the Natural Resources Agency (Secretary) to establish “a list of classes of projects that have been determined not to have a significant effect on the environment and that shall be exempt from” CEQA.  (§ 21084, subd. (a).)  “In response to that mandate,” the Secretary “has found” that certain “classes of projects . . . do not have a significant effect on the environment” and, in administrative regulations known as guidelines, has listed those classes and “declared them to be categorically exempt from the requirement for the preparation of environmental documents.”  (Cal. Code Regs., tit. 14, § 15300; see id., § 15000 et seq., Guidelines for Implementation of CEQA (Guidelines).) 
(…), the Court of Appeal agreed with appellants that the unusual circumstances exception precludes the City from relying on those exemptions (the concurring opinion prefers to call section 15300.2, subdivision (c), “the significant effect exception,” based on its title).  (Conc. opn. of Liu, J., post, at p. 6.)  Our use of the term “unusual circumstances exception” is consistent with the Court of Appeal’s decision in this case and the vast majority of published case law.  Of course, a provision’s title “is never allowed to enlarge or control the language in the body of the provision.”  (Hagar v. Sup. of Yolo Co. (1874) 47 Cal. 222, 232; see DaFonte v. Up-Right, Inc. (1992) 2 Cal.4th 593, 602 [“Title or chapter headings are unofficial and do not alter the explicit scope, meaning, or intent of a statute.”].)
In the court’s view, “the fact that proposed activity may have an effect on the environment is itself an unusual circumstance” that triggers the exception, “because such action would not fall ‘within a class of activities that does not normally threaten the environment,’ and thus should be subject to further environmental review.”  The court next reasoned that the standard of judicial review for an agency’s determination that the exception does not apply is whether the record contains evidence of a fair argument of a significant effect on the environment, not whether substantial evidence supports the agency’s determination. Finally, finding substantial evidence of a fair argument that the proposed project may have a significant environmental impact, the court held that the unusual circumstances exception renders the categorical exemptions inapplicable.  It ordered the trial court “to issue a writ of mandate directing the City to set aside the approval of use permits and its finding of a categorical exemption, and to order the preparation of an EIR (environmental impact report).”
Said the California Supreme Court: a potentially significant environmental effect is not alone sufficient to trigger the unusual circumstances exception. Guidelines section 15300.2, subdivision (c), provides:  “A categorical exemption shall not be used for an activity where there is a reasonable possibility that the activity will have a significant effect on the environment due to unusual circumstances.”  The plain language of this provision supports the view that, for the exception to apply, it is not alone enough that there is a reasonable possibility the project will have a significant environmental effect; instead, in the words of the Guideline, there must be “a reasonable possibility that the activity will have a significant effect on the environment due to unusual circumstances.”  (Guidelines, § 15300.2, subd. (c)). Reading the phrase “due to unusual circumstances” out of the regulation, as appellants and the concurring opinion propose, would be contrary to the principle of construction that directs us “to accord meaning to every word and phrase in a regulation.”  (Price v. Starbucks Corp. (2011) 192 Cal.App.4th 1136, 1145.)    CEQA specifies that environmental review through preparation of an EIR is required only “if there is substantial evidence . . . that the project may have a significant effect on the environment.”  (§ 21080, subd. (d).)  As a corollary to this principle, CEQA also specifies that, if “there is no substantial evidence, in light of the whole record before the lead agency, that the project may have a significant effect on the environment,” then the proposed project is not subject to further CEQA review.  (§ 21080, subd. (c)(1).)  Guidelines section 15061, subdivision (b)(3), captures these principles by specifying:  “Where it can be seen with certainty that there is no possibility that the activity in question may have a significant effect on the environment, the activity is not subject to CEQA.”  Under these provisions, where there is no substantial evidence a proposed project may have a significant environmental effect, further CEQA review is unnecessary; no categorical exemption is necessary to establish that proposition. (…) test for determining whether the unusual circumstances exception applies —whether there is a “reasonable possibility” the proposed project “will have a significant effect on the environment” (Guidelines, § 15300.2, subd. (c)) — is precisely the test used to determine whether Guidelines section 15061, subdivision (b)(3), applies.  (California Farm Bureau Federation v. California Wildlife Conservation Bd. (2006) 143 Cal.App.4th 173, 194 [Guidelines, § 15061, subd. (b)(3), inapplicable if “there is a reasonable possibility that a proposed project will have a significant effect upon the environment”].)  (…) In Friends of Mammoth v. Board of Supervisors (1972) 8 Cal.3d 247, 259 (Mammoth), we held that CEQA applies, not just to public projects, but also to private activities requiring a government permit or similar entitlement.  (…) the Legislature enacted section 21086 to establish a mechanism for challenging the Secretary’s categorical exemptions.  (Stats. 1972, ch. 1154, § 1, pp.  2271, 2273-2274.)  Subdivision (a) of that section provides:  “A public agency may, at any time, request the addition or deletion of a class of projects, to the list designated pursuant to Section 21084.  The Legislature, through the Guidelines, intended to enumerate classes of projects that are exempt from CEQA because, notwithstanding their potential effect on the environment, they already “have been determined not to have a significant effect on the environment.”  (§ 21084.)  Thus, construing the unusual circumstances exception as requiring more than a showing of a fair argument that the proposed activity may have a significant environmental effect is fully consistent with the Legislature’s intent. Even if a proposed project faces no opposition, an agency invoking a categorical exemption may not simply ignore the unusual circumstances exception; it must “consider the issue of significant effects . . . in determining whether the project is exempt from CEQA where there is some information or evidence in the record that the project might have a significant environmental effect.”  (Association for Protection etc. Values v. City of Ukiah (1991) 2 Cal.App.4th 720, 732 (Ukiah).)  This follows from Guidelines section 15061, subdivisions (a) and (b)(2), which, respectively, (1) direct a lead agency to determine whether a proposed project is “exempt from CEQA,” and (2) specify that a project is exempt if a categorical exemption applies “and the application of that categorical exemption is not barred by one of the exceptions set forth in Section 15300.2.”  Accordingly, the Court of Appeal erred by holding that a potentially significant environmental effect itself constitutes an unusual circumstance. The plain language of Guidelines section 15300.2, subdivision (c), requires that a potentially significant effect must be “due to unusual circumstances” for the exception to apply.  The requirement of unusual circumstances recognizes and gives effect to the Secretary’s general finding that projects in the exempt class typically do not have significant impacts. This reading of the guideline is not inconsistent with the phrase “reasonable possibility that the activity will have a significant effect on the environment.”  (Guidelines, § 15300.2, subd. (c).)  A party invoking the exception may establish an unusual circumstance without evidence of an environmental effect, by showing that the project has some feature that distinguishes it from others in the exempt class, such as its size or location.  In such a case, to render the exception applicable, the party need only show a reasonable possibility of a significant effect due to that unusual circumstance.  Alternatively, under our reading of the guideline, a party may establish an unusual circumstance with evidence that the project will have a significant environmental effect.  That evidence, if convincing, necessarily also establishes “a reasonable possibility that the activity will have a significant effect on the environment due to unusual circumstances.”  (Guidelines, § 15300.2, subd. (c).)  (…) Consistent with the preceding analysis, we disapprove Communities for a Better Environment v. California Resources Agency (2002) 103 Cal.App.4th 98, 129, insofar as it suggests that a proposed project’s potential environmental effects alone render the unusual circumstances exception applicable.  In reversing based on potential geotechnical effects, the Court of Appeal did not address other potential effects appellants allege, including aesthetic and view impacts, inconsistencies with land use plans and policies the City has adopted for environmental protection, construction-related traffic impacts, and permanent traffic impacts related to contemplated fundraising activities at the house.  Nor did the Court of Appeal address appellants’ argument that the City’s adoption of a traffic management plan is a mitigation measure that precludes a finding that the proposed project is categorically exempt.  Rather than address these issues here in the first instance, we leave their consideration to the Court of Appeal on remand.  (…)  In determining whether the environmental effects of a proposed project are unusual or typical, local agencies have discretion to consider conditions in the vicinity of the proposed project. (…) Section 21168.9 specifically addresses the available remedies for CEQA violations.  As here relevant, subdivision (a) provides that, upon finding that a public agency’s decision violates CEQA, a court should enter an order that includes (1) a mandate that the decision be voided in whole or in part, and/or (2) a mandate that the agency “take specific action as may be necessary to bring the . . . decision into compliance with” CEQA.  (§ 21168.9, subd. (a)(1), (3).)  Subdivision (b) states that any such order “shall be made by the issuance of a peremptory writ of mandate specifying what action by the public agency is necessary to comply with [CEQA].”  (§ 21168.9, subd. (b), italics added.)  Consistent with these provisions, we have ordered preparation of an EIR upon finding that a public agency had improperly issued a negative declaration for a proposed project (Communities for a Better Environment v. South Coast Air Quality Management Dist. (2010) 48 Cal.4th 310, 320), and upon finding that a certified EIR was inadequate (Laurel Heights I, supra, 47 Cal.3d at p. 388). However, as respondents note, subdivision (c) of section 21168.9 provides in part that “nothing in this section authorizes a court to direct any public agency to exercise its discretion in any particular way.”  In Voices, supra, 209 Cal.App.4th at page 1113, the Court of Appeal held that, upon finding that an agency erred in applying a categorical exemption, the trial court had “exceeded its authority” in ordering the agency to prepare an EIR.  “How an agency complies with CEQA,” the Court of Appeal reasoned, is a matter first left to the agency’s discretion.  Having determined the project was not exempt from CEQA, the court should have ordered the agency to proceed with further CEQA compliance, which in this case would have been the preparation of an initial study and a determination of whether further environmental review would require an EIR or a mitigated negative declaration. Consistent with these authorities, if, on remand, the Court of Appeal determines that neither of the categorical exemptions discussed above applies, then it may order preparation of an EIR only if, under the circumstances, the City would lack discretion to apply another exemption or to issue a negative declaration, mitigated or otherwise (Cal. S. Ct., Feb. 3, 2015, Berkeley Hillside Preservation v. City of Berkeley,  S201116).

Book: Kostka & Zischke, Practice under the Cal. Environmental Quality Act (2d ed. 2008).


La loi californienne sur la qualité de l’environnement (CEQA), logée dans le Code sur les ressources publiques, met sur pied un schéma très complet visant à protéger l’environnement à long terme. Elle prescrit les procédures d’examen que l’administration publique doit suivre avant d’approuver ou de mettre en œuvre certains projets. Pour des raisons de politique publique, le législateur a expressément exclu de tout examen selon dite loi diverses catégories de projets. De par la loi, le législateur a aussi imposé au Secrétaire de l’administration des ressources naturelles d’établir une liste de classes de projets qui ont été déterminés comme n’impliquant pas d’effet significatif sur l’environnement, devant ainsi être exclus du périmètre de la loi CEQA. En réponse à cette exigence, le Secrétaire a établi la liste de ces classes dans une réglementation administrative connue sous le nom de Lignes directrices, et a déclaré ces classes catégoriquement exclues des exigences de préparation de documents environnementaux.
Dans la présente affaire (qui posait la question des exigences à remplir pour la construction d’une maison individuelle, incluant un garage permettant d’y parquer dix véhicules automobiles, la construction devant avoir lieu sur un terrain en pente, éventuellement dans une zone sismique, et impliquant d’importants travaux de construction et de consolidation du terrain, avec le cortège de nuisances accompagnant d’abord le chantier puis les activités de levées de fonds (fundraising) qu’il était prévu de mener dans la maison une fois celle-ci terminée), la cour d’appel de l’état jugea que l’exception basée sur des circonstances inhabituelles empêchait la municipalité de se baser sur les exclusions environnementales ci-dessus, résultant des Lignes directrices. Toujours selon la cour d’appel, le fait qu’une activité envisagée pourrait avoir un effet sur l’environnement constitue en lui-même une circonstance inhabituelle qui active l’exception (à l’exemption de l’application de la loi CEQA), parce qu’une telle action n’est pas susceptible de tomber dans une classe d’activités qui ne menace usuellement pas l’environnement, de sorte que dite activité devrait être sujette à une étude environnementale additionnelle.  En conclusion, la cour d’appel, appliquant le standard de preuve dit du « fair argument » (une sorte d’évaluation de la preuve sous un angle général d’équité) jugea que le projet proposé pouvait entraîner un impact environnemental significatif. De la sorte, l’exception des circonstances inhabituelles impliquait l’inapplication des exemptions catégoriques (aux exigences de la CEQA) fixées par les Lignes directrices. La cour d’appel ordonna à la cour de première instance de délivrer une ordonnance (writ of mandate) imposant à la municipalité d’annuler son approbation du permis de construire, d’annuler sa conclusion selon laquelle une exemption catégorique s’appliquerait, et de préparer un rapport d’impact environnemental (EIR).
La Cour Suprême de Californie est ensuite saisie de cette affaire. Elle juge qu’un potentiel effet significatif sur l’environnement n’est à lui seul pas suffisant pour appliquer l’exception des circonstances inhabituelles (cette exception fait sortir le projet des classes d’exemptions prévues par les Lignes directrices, ce qui entraîne l’application de la CEQA). La Section 15300.2, subdivision (c) des Lignes directrices prévoit en effet qu’une exemption catégorique (des exigences de CEQA) ne doit pas être appliquée à une activité lorsqu’il existe une possibilité raisonnable que dite activité pourrait avoir un effet significatif sur l’environnement en raison de circonstances inhabituelles. Considérée littéralement, cette Section des Lignes directrices implique que l’application de l’exception n’est pas admise en cas de possibilité raisonnable que le projet présente un effet environnemental significatif, sans plus.  En effet, selon les termes mêmes des Lignes directrices, il doit exister une possibilité raisonnable que l’activité présente un effet significatif sur l’environnement  en raison de circonstances inhabituelles.
CEQA spécifie l’établissement d’un rapport environnemental uniquement en cas de preuves substantielles selon lesquelles le projet pourrait avoir un effet significatif sur l’environnement. En corollaire à ce principe, CEQA précise que s’il n’existe pas de preuves substantielles, à la lumière de l’ensemble du dossier devant l’administration, que le projet pourrait avoir un effet significatif sur l’environnement, alors le projet proposé n’est pas sujet à davantage d’investigations (sous l’angle de CEQA).
Test permettant de déterminer si l’exception pour circonstances inhabituelles s’applique, soit savoir s’il existe une possibilité raisonnable que le projet proposé ait un effet significatif sur l’environnement : la disposition des Lignes directrices exemptant de toute investigation environnementale supplémentaire ne s’applique pas s’il existe une possibilité raisonnable qu’un projet proposé aura un effet significatif sur l’environnement. Par ailleurs, CEQA s’applique aussi bien aux projets publics qu’aux projets privés qui requièrent un permis du gouvernement ou un équivalent. Par le mécanisme des Lignes directrices, l’intention du législatif était d’énumérer des classes de projets exempts des exigences de CEQA du fait que, nonobstant leur effet potentiel sur l’environnement, ils ont déjà été déterminés comme dépourvus d’effet significatif sur l’environnement (§ 21084). Considérant ce qui précède, en interprétant l’exception pour circonstances inhabituelles comme imposant davantage qu’un « honnête argument » (a fair argument) selon lequel l’activité proposée pourrait avoir un effet significatif sur l’environnement, on agit en parfaite conformité avec l’intention du législateur (le test demande donc davantage qu’un simple « honnête argument » pour sortir un projet d’une exception à l’application de CEQA, exception donc prévue dans les Lignes directrices).
Par ailleurs, même si un projet ne fait face à aucune opposition, une administration qui invoque une exemption catégorique ne peut pas simplement ignorer l’exception pour circonstances inhabituelles. L’administration doit considérer la question des effets significatifs, en déterminant si le projet est exempt de CEQA, lorsqu’il existe certaines informations ou certaines preuves dans le dossier que le projet pourrait avoir un effet significatif sur l’environnement. Dès lors, la cour d’appel se trompe quand elle soutient qu’un effet potentiellement significatif sur l’environnement constitue en lui-même une circonstance inhabituelle. Le texte lui-même de la Section 15300.2, subdivision (c) des Lignes directrices exige qu’un effet potentiellement significatif soit dû à des circonstances inhabituelles pour que s’applique l’exception (l’exception à l’application des classes qui dispensent de CEQA). L’exigence des circonstances inhabituelles  donne effet aux considérations du Secrétaire selon lesquelles les projets catégorisées dans les classe exemptées sont typiquement dépourvus d’impacts significatifs. Par ailleurs, une partie qui se réfère dans un premier temps à une exception (aux classes qui exemptent de l’application de CEQA) peut établir l’existence d’une circonstance inhabituelle sans apporter la preuve d’un effet sur l’environnement, mais en démontrant que le projet est façonné de telle sorte à le distinguer d’autres projets dans la classe exemptée (par exemple s’agissant de sa taille ou de son lieu de situation). Dans un tel cas, pour rendre applicable l’exception (à l’application des classes qui exemptent de CEQA), la partie n’a que besoin de démontrer une possibilité raisonnable d’un effet significatif dû à cette circonstance inhabituelle. Alternativement, une partie peut établir une circonstance inhabituelle par la preuve que le projet présentera un effet environnemental significatif. Cette preuve, si elle est convaincante, établit aussi nécessairement une possibilité raisonnable que l’activité présentera un effet significatif sur l’environnement en raison de circonstances inhabituelles. En outre, dans la décision à prendre s’agissant d’autoriser ou non le projet, doivent aussi être examinés les impacts esthétiques et les impacts sur la vue, les éventuelles inconsistances avec les plans d’usage du sol et de manière plus générale la politique que la municipalité a adoptée pour la protection de l’environnement, relative aux impacts sur le trafic causés par la construction projetée ou causés par l’usage de la construction une fois celle-ci terminée.
En déterminant si les effets environnementaux d’un projet sont inhabituels ou typiques, les administrations locales sont au bénéfice d’un pouvoir de discrétion pour ce qui est de la considération des conditions de voisinage du projet.
En cas de violation de CEQA par l’administration, la Cour ordonnera l’annulation de la décision administrative, ainsi que la mise en œuvre par l’administration de toutes mesures requises par CEQA. A ce niveau, il est à remarquer que si un Tribunal juge que l’administration n’a pas respecté CEQA, par exemple en appliquant à tort une exemption catégorique, le Tribunal ne saurait, sous peine d’excès d’autorité, ordonner à l’administration par exemple la préparation d’un rapport environnemental. En effet, l’administration conserve dans un premier temps sa discrétion s’agissant du choix des moyens visant à mettre en œuvre les réquisits de CEQA.