Penal procedure: eyewitness identification: the Due
Process Clause does not require a preliminary judicial inquiry into the
reliability of an eyewitness identification when the identification was not
procured under unnecessarily suggestive circumstances arranged by law
enforcement; the Constitution protects a defendant against a conviction based
on evidence of questionable reliability, not by prohibiting introduction of the
evidence, but by affording the defendant means to persuade the jury that the
evidence should be discounted as unworthy of credit. Only when evidence “is so
extremely unfair that its admission violates fundamental conceptions of
justice,” Dowling v. United States, 493 U. S. 342, 352,
does the Due Process Clause preclude its admission; due process requires courts
to assess, on a case-by-case basis, whether improper police conduct created a
“substantial likelihood of misidentification.”; the due process check for
reliability, Brathwaite made
plain, comes into play only after the defendant establishes improper police
conduct; the fallibility of eyewitness evidence does not, without the taint of
improper state conduct, warrant a due process rule requiring a trial court to
screen the evidence for reliability before allowing the jury to assess its
creditworthiness (U.S.S.Ct., 11.01.12, Perry v. New Hampshire, J. Ginsburg).
Wednesday, January 11, 2012
Perry v. New Hampshire
Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. EEOC
First Amendment: religion Clauses:
employment discrimination: the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses of the
First Amendment bar suits brought on behalf of ministers against their
churches, claiming termination in violation of employment discrimination laws;
the First Amendment provides, in part, that “Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”
Familiar with life under the established Church of England, the founding
generation sought to foreclose the possibility of a national church. By
forbidding the “establishment of religion” and guaranteeing the “free exercise
thereof,” the Religion Clauses ensured that the new Federal Government—unlike
the English Crown—would have no role in filling ecclesiastical offices; this
Court first considered the issue of government interference with a church’s
ability to select its own ministers in the context of disputes over church
property. This Court’s decisions in that area confirm that it is impermissible
for the government to contradict a church’s determination of who can act as its
ministers. See Watson v. Jones, 13 Wall. 679; Kedroff v. Saint Nicholas Cathedral of Russian Orthodox Church in North America,
344 U. S. 94; Serbian Eastern Orthodox
Diocese for United States and Canada v. Milivojevich, 426 U. S. 696; since the passage of Title VII of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other employment discrimination laws, the
Courts of Appeals have uniformly recognized the existence of a “ministerial
exception,” grounded in the First Amendment, that precludes application of such
legislation to claims concerning the employment relationship between a
religious institution and its ministers. The Court agrees that there is such a
ministerial exception. Requiring a church to accept or retain an unwanted
minister, or punishing a church for failing to do so, intrudes upon more than a
mere employment decision. Such action interferes with the internal governance
of the church, depriving the church of control over the selection of those who
will personify its beliefs. By imposing an unwanted minister, the state
infringes the Free Exercise Clause, which protects a religious group’s right to
shape its own faith and mission through its appointments. According the state
the power to determine which individuals will minister to the faithful also
violates the Establishment Clause, which prohibits government involvement in
such ecclesiastical decisions; the present case, in contrast, concerns
government interference with an internal church decision that affects the faith
and mission of the church itself; because Perich was a minister within the
meaning of the ministerial exception, the First Amendment requires dismissal
of this employment discrimination suit against her religious employer; because
Perich was a minister for purposes of the exception, this suit must be
dismissed. An order reinstating Perich as a called teacher would have plainly
violated the Church’s freedom under the Religion Clauses to select its own
ministers. Though Perich no longer seeks reinstatement, she continues to seek
front pay, backpay, compensatory and punitive damages, and attorney’s fees. An
award of such relief would operate as a penalty on the Church for terminating
an unwanted minister, and would be no less prohibited by the First Amendment
than an order overturning the termination. Such relief would depend on a
determination that Hosanna-Tabor was wrong to have relieved Perich of her
position, and it is precisely such a ruling that is barred by the ministerial
exception; today the Court holds only that the ministerial exception bars an
employment discrimination suit brought on behalf of a minister, challenging her
church’s decision to fire her. The Court expresses no view on whether the
exception bars other types of suits (U.S.S.Ct., 11.01.12, Hosanna-Tabor
Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. EEOC, C.J. Roberts).
Premier Amendement : Clauses relatives aux questions religieuses :
discrimination dans le monde du travail : la Clause d’établissement et la
Clause de libre exercice du Premier Amendement ne permettent pas à un ministre
du culte d’agir en justice contre son église, alléguant une résiliation en
violation des lois contre la discrimination. Selon le Premier Amendement, le
Congrès ne peut pas promulguer de loi établissant une religion, et ne peut pas
promulguer de loi interdisant le libre exercice d’une religion. Connaissant
bien la vie sous l’église officielle d’Angleterre, la génération des Pères
fondateurs avait comme but d’éviter la possibilité de l’établissement d’une
église nationale. En interdisant l’établissement d’une religion, et en
garantissant le libre exercice de la religion, les Clauses constitutionnelles
assuraient que le nouveau Gouvernement fédéral, à l’inverse de la Couronne
anglaise, ne pourrait jouer aucun rôle dans le choix des personnes appelées à
exercer des fonctions ecclésiastiques. Depuis l’entrée en vigueur du Titre VII
de la loi fédérale sur les droits civils de 1964, les Tribunaux ont
uniformément reconnu l’existence d’une exception applicables au clergé, fondée
sur le Premier Amendement, exception qui prohibe la législation sur les droits
civils ou sur les pratiques discriminatoires de s’appliquer aux relations de
travail entre une institution religieuse et ses ministres. Le but est de ne pas
interférer avec la gouvernance interne des églises, évitant ainsi de priver
l’église du contrôle sur la sélection de ceux appelés à personnifier ses
croyances. En imposant un ministre non souhaité par l’église, l’état porte
atteinte au droit de libre exercice, qui protège le droit d’un groupe religieux
de structurer sa foi et sa mission à travers les personnes nommées. Accorder à
l’état le pouvoir de déterminer quels individus peuvent fonctionner comme
ministre porte également atteinte à la Clause d’établissement, qui prohibe
l’implication gouvernementale dans de telles décisions ecclésiastiques. En
l’espèce, une décision de la Cour de réintégrer le ministre du culte dans ses
attributions violerait manifestement la liberté de l’église de choisir ses
ministres. Il est vrai qu’en l’espèce, la recourante ne conclut pas à sa
réintégrande. Elle ne conclut qu’à l’octroi de ses prétentions salariales, à la
condamnation de son employeur à payer des dommages compensatoires et punitifs,
ainsi qu’à la prise en charge de ses frais d’avocat par sa partie adverse. Dans
un stade ultérieur de la procédure, la recourante avait abandonné sa conclusion
en réintégration, mais avait maintenu ses conclusions en paiements de salaires,
de dommages-intérêts punitifs, et de ses frais d’avocat. Adjuger ces
conclusions reviendrait à prononcer une pénalité à l’église pour avoir mis fin
à la relation avec son ministre, relation qu’elle ne souhaitait plus. Une telle
pénalité n’est pas conforme au Premier Amendement, pas plus que ne le serait un
ordre de réintégration du ministre du culte dans ses fonctions. La Cour tient à
préciser que dans cette affaire, elle n’a jugé que la question du sort de
l’action en discrimination déposée par un ministre d’une église contre le
licenciement par l’église qui l’emploie. La Cour ne se prononce pas sur la
question de savoir si le Premier Amendement prohibe d’autres actions dans le
cadre ecclésiastique.
Pacific Operators Offshore, LLP v. Valladolid
Oil and offshore industry: offshore drilling
platforms: injury onshore: petitioner Pacific Operators Offshore, LLP
(Pacific), operates two drilling platforms on the Outer Continental Shelf
(OCS) off the California coast and an onshore oil and gas processing facility.
Employee Juan Valladolid spent 98 percent of his time working on an offshore
platform, but he was killed in an accident while working at the onshore
facility. His widow, a respondent here, sought benefits under the Longshore and
Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act (LHWCA), 33 U. S. C. §901 et seq., pursuant to the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), which extends LHWCA coverage to injuries
“occurring as the result of operations conducted on the OCS” for the purpose of
extracting natural resources from the shelf, 43 U. S. C. §1333(b); the OCSLA
extends coverage to an employee who can establish a substantial nexus between
his injury and his employer’s extractive operations on the OCS; the Ninth
Circuit’s “substantial-nexus” test is more faithful to §1333(b)’s text. This
Court understands that test to require the injured employee to establish a
significant causal link between his injury and his employer’s on-OCS
extractive operations. The test may not be the easiest to administer, but
Administrative Law Judges and courts should be able to determine if an injured
employee has established the required significant causal link. Whether an
employee injured while performing an off-OCS task qualifies will depend on the
circumstances of each case. It was thus proper for the Ninth Circuit to remand
this case for the Benefits Review Board to apply the “substantial-nexus” test
(U.S.S.Ct., 11.01.12, Pacific Operators Offshore, LLP v. Valladolid, J. Thomas).
Tuesday, January 10, 2012
CompuCredit Corp v. Greenwood
Credit card, arbitration: although
respondents’ credit card agreement required their claims to be resolved by
binding arbitration, they filed a lawsuit against petitioner CompuCredit
Corporation and a division of petitioner bank, alleging, inter alia, violations of the Credit
Repair Organizations Act (CROA). The Federal District Court denied the
defendants’ motion to compel arbitration, concluding that Congress intended
CROA claims to be nonarbitrable. The Ninth Circuit affirmed.
Held: because the CROA is silent on whether claims under the Act can
proceed in an arbitrable forum, the Federal Arbitration Act (FAA) requires the
arbitration agreement to be enforced according to its terms; Section 2 of the
FAA establishes “a liberal federal policy favoring arbitration.” Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Constr. Corp., 460 U. S. 1,
24. It requires that courts enforce arbitration agreements according to their
terms. See Dean Witter Reynolds Inc.v.
Byrd, 470 U. S. 213, 221. That
is the case even when federal statutory claims are at issue, unless the FAA’s
mandate has been “overridden by a contrary congressional command.” Shearson/American Express Inc. v. McMahon, 482 U. S. 220, 226; the CROA
provides no such command. Respondents contend that the CROA’s disclosure
provision—which requires credit repair organizations to provide consumers with
a statement that includes the sentence “ ‘You have a right to sue a credit
repair organization that violates the Act,’ ” 15 U. S. C. §1679c(a)—gives
consumers the right to bring an action in a court of law; and that, because the
CROA prohibits the waiver of “any right of the consumer under this subchapter,”
§1679f(a), the arbitration agreement’s waiver of the “right” to bring a court
action cannot be enforced. Respondents’ premise is flawed. The disclosure
provision creates only a right for consumers to receive a specific statement
describing the consumer protections that the law elsewhere provides, one of
which is the right to enforce a credit repair organization’s “liability” for
“failure to comply with the Act.” §1679g(a). That provision does not
override the FAA’s mandate. Its mere contemplation of judicial enforcement does
not demonstrate that the Act provides consumers with a “right” to initial
judicial enforcement (U.S.S.Ct., 10.01.12, CompuCredit Corp v. Greenwood, J.
Scalia).
Cartes de crédit et arbitrage : le contrat de carte de crédit impose la
résolution des litiges par voie arbitrale. Nonobstant, un demandeur actionne la
banque devant une cour de district fédérale, invoquant la violation d’une loi
fédérale. La cour de district fédérale et la cour d’appel ont rejeté la requête
de la partie défenderesse, requête qui concluait au renvoi de la cause devant
l’arbitre, jugeant que l’intention du Congrès était, s’agissant de cette loi
fédérale, d’écarter l’arbitrage. La Cour Suprême renverse ces jugements. La loi
fédérale en question ne dit rien sur le fait de savoir si une action fondée sur
dite loi peut être arbitrale. Par conséquent, la loi fédérale sur l’arbitrage
s’applique, et elle impose que la convention d’arbitrage soit exécutée selon
ses termes. La section 2 de la loi fédérale sur l’arbitrage établit une
politique fédérale libérale qui favorise l’arbitrage. La loi impose aux
Tribunaux d’exécuter les conventions d’arbitrage conformément à leurs termes.
Il en est ainsi également si une action est fondée sur une loi fédérale, à
moins que la loi fédérale sur l’arbitrage soit écartée par une intention du
Congrès. En l’espèce, aucune intention de cette sorte n’est établie. La loi
fédérale à la base de l’action en justice prévoit bien un droit d’action en
faveur du consommateur, mais ce droit n’implique pas un droit de saisir une
cour de justice au lieu du Tribunal arbitral convenu.
Gonzalez v. Thaler
Habeas petitions: federal habeas petitions: 1-year
statute of limitations in the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996
(AEDPA). Under 28 U. S. C. §2244(d)(1)(A), state prisoners have one year to
file federal habeas petitions running from “the date on which the judgment
became final by the conclusion of direct review or the expiration of the time
for seeking such review.”; under AEDPA, a habeas petitioner must obtain a
certificate of appealability (COA) to appeal a district court’s final order in
a habeas proceeding. 28 U. S. C. §2253(c)(1). The COA may issue only if the
petitioner has made a “substantial showing of the denial of a constitutional
right,” §2253(c)(2), and “shall indicate which specific issue ”satisfies that
showing, §2253(c)(3). A Fifth Circuit judge granted Gonzalez a COA on the
question whether his petition was timely. The issued COA, however, failed to
“indicate” a constitutional issue; Section 2253(c)(3) is a mandatory but
nonjurisdictional rule. A COA’s failure to “indicate” a constitutional issue
does not deprive a Court of Appeals of jurisdiction to adjudicate the appeal; the
word “shall” in §2253(c)(3), meanwhile, underscores the rule’s mandatory
nature, but not all mandatory rules are jurisdictional. Nor does §2253(c)(3)’s
mere proximity to other jurisdictional provisions turn a rule that speaks in
nonjurisdictional terms into a jurisdictional hurdle; for a state prisoner who
does not seek review in a State’s highest court, the judgment becomes “final”
for purposes of §2244(d)(1)(A) on the date that the time for seeking such
review expires; in Clay v. United States, 537 U. S. 522, the
Court held that a federal conviction becomes final “when this Court affirms a
conviction on the merits on direct review or denies a petition for a writ of
certiorari,” or, if a petitioner does not seek certiorari, “when the time for
filing a certiorari petition expires.” Id.,
at 527; for petitioners pursuing direct review all the way to this
Court, the judgment becomes final at the “conclusion of direct review,” when
this Court affirms a conviction on the merits or denies certiorari. For all
other petitioners, the judgment becomes final at the “expiration of the time
for seeking such review,” when the time for pursuing direct review in this
Court, or in state court, expires. Because Gonzalez did not appeal to the
State’s highest court, his judgment became final when his time for seeking
review with that court expired (U.S.S.Ct., 10.01.12, Gonzalez v. Thaler, J.
Sotomayor).
Habeas,
fédéral : s’agissant des prisonniers incarcérés sur la base d’infractions au
droit pénal d’un état, le droit fédéral prévoit un délai d’un an pour déposer
une requête d’habeas corpus. Ce délai commence à courir dès le jour où le
dernier jugement rendu en procédure ordinaire directe devient définitif ou dès
le jour d’expiration du délai pour recourir en procédure ordinaire directe.
Dans la procédure de l’habeas corpus, le requérant doit obtenir un certificat
d’appel pour appeler d’une décision finale rendue par une cour de district. Le
certificat d’appel ne peut être délivré que si le requérant démontre de manière
substantielle le déni de l’un de ses droits constitutionnels. Sa démonstration
doit être spécifique. Le certificat d’appel n’est pas caduc s’il omet
d’indiquer quelle est la question constitutionnelle en cause. En effet, le
droit fédéral qui régit le certificat prévoit que l’indication de la norme
constitutionnelle en cause est obligatoire mais sans avoir nature
juridictionnelle. Par conséquent, même sans l’indication précitée, la cour
d’appel est compétente pour connaître de la requête d’habeas. Il est rappelé
que toutes les règles obligatoires n’ont pas nécessairement nature
juridictionnelle. Pour ce qui est du
calcul du délai : si un prisonnier d’état ne recourt pas contre sa
condamnation devant la cour suprême de l’état, le jugement devient final à
l’expiration du délai de recours. Pour sa part, une condamnation fédérale
devient finale lorsque la Cour Suprême fédérale affirme sur le fond la
condamnation selon les voies de recours directes ou lorsque dite Cour rejette
la requête d’octroi du « writ of certiorari ». Si le recourant ne
forme pas de pétition pour l’octroi d’un tel writ, le délai expire le dernier
jour pour déposer la pétition.
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